TMC-Mar26

Posted on April 1, 2026April 16, 2026 by Kiana Abel

Summary of the Trinity Management Council’s March Quarterly Meeting

The Trinity Management Council met in-person on Mar. 25 and 26 in Willow Creek for its spring-quarter meeting to discuss the work shaping the Trinity River Restoration Program (TRRP). The meeting brought together leaders from multiple agencies and tribes who shared updates on operations, science, restoration work, and the long‑term stewardship of the river. The following highlights the main themes and takeaways from the session – the full notes will be posted (here) after approved by TMC at the June 2026 meeting.

Executive Director’s Report (TRRP Staff)

Mike Dixon opened the Executive Director’s report with an overview of current program operations, staffing realities, and fiscal constraints shaping TRRP’s workload. He noted that the office continues to operate under unusually heavy demands while key positions remain unfilled. A vacant physical scientist role—critical for flow scheduling and coordination with Central Valley Operations—was recently forwarded to Washington, D.C. for approval to recruit, which he described as a welcome development given the cumulative burden on remaining staff. He also shared that he has now officially begun serving as Acting Deputy Area Manager for NCAO, adding another layer of responsibility during an already demanding period.

Dixon focused on challenges resulting from the Department of the Interior’s transition to the G‑Invoicing financial system. The timing of the shift created widespread confusion across bureaus, leaving TRRP temporarily unable to access or spend funds transferred from partner agencies. Dixon credited TRRP Secretary, Samantha Maier, for stepping far beyond her normal duties to troubleshoot and restore functional financial workflows, ensuring the program could once again move money to partners and implement planned work.

On the operational front, Dixon provided a brief but important update on the escapement monitoring negotiations among Reclamation, CDFW, and the Hoopa Valley Tribe. A mediation team has been hired to help guide the parties toward an MOU addressing monitoring at the Lower Trinity River weir sites. He cautioned, however, that due to the delayed contracting timeline, no new agreement will be completed in time to change monitoring approaches for 2026, leaving the program in a “status‑quo” posture for one more year.

Dixon also reported meaningful progress on long‑requested temperature control planning at Trinity Lake. After years of delays the Value Planning Study for a Trinity Lake Temperature Control Device is now scheduled for early December. This study will convene technical experts from Reclamation regional offices, Denver TSC, and potentially DWR to evaluate feasible alternatives for selective withdrawal infrastructure. A summary of conceptual options is expected by March following the study session.

Finally, in lieu of Kristin Hiatt later in the day, he provided a re-consultation update for the Long-Term Operation of the Trinity River Division. The Biological Assessment is entering high‑level policy review and the cooperating agency Supplemental EIS is expected to circulate soon for a 30‑day Cooperating Agency Draft review period. If the schedule holds a public draft should be released this summer.

Implementation Branch

Implementation Branch Chief, James Lee, provided a thorough walkthrough of ongoing and upcoming channel rehabilitation, sediment management, and watershed-related activities. The update emphasized construction progress, design timelines, interagency coordination, and long‑term project sequencing.

Lee confirmed that Sawmill Restoration is expected to finish civil construction this year. The site is being transformed from a long‑used gravel excavation and processing area into a rehabilitated channel and floodplain complex.

More information about the project can be found here: https://www.trrp.net/phaseii-rehab-sawmill/

Lee noted that the Evans Bar Restoration Project in Junction City was originally expected to start construction this year, but the Federal team reported significant delays caused by the government shutdown that postponed value engineering (VE) study. The VE is now complete and provided extensive recommendations to the design team who are now working toward 60% design, estimated to be complete by June. Due to these delays, the project will not be ready to implement in 2026. The team noted communication with adjacent private landowners, who are concerned about access and public use.

Lee discussed upcoming projects like the Rush Creek Confluence Restoration Project, an older conceptual design that TRRP intends to advance into a 60% design, bringing the project into the pipeline for construction in the next several years. Also on the forefront is the Sky Ranch Project (Junction City) remains at 60% design due to delays with Federal land ownership transfers.

Lastly, Lee updated the TMC regarding the Sediment & Wood Augmentation project within the Steel Bridge Area which is the first use of the new Sediment and Wood Environmental Assessment. A presentation with details for the project was given by the Physical Workgroup Coordinator, Smokey Pittman at the end of the meeting.

James reported on several watershed restoration projects funded through NFWF:

Deadwood Creek: NEPA and cultural compliance are complete; implementation expected in June.
Salt Creek: Strong progress on compliance, but funding challenges may limit construction.
East Branch of East Weaver Creek fish passage: Construction is scheduled for 2026.
Browns Creek Water Resilience: Two landowners recently expressed interest, though archaeological concerns may reduce participation.
Smith Pit: The Hoopa Tribe is pursuing design funding for restoration and the TRRP has committed to assisting with Environmental Compliance.

Public Outreach & Communications

Kiana Abel, Public Affairs Specialist, reported continued growth and strong engagement across TRRP’s public outreach platforms. The TRRP Facebook page surpassed 2,040 followers, with flow‑related updates again generating the highest interaction. She highlighted the recent installation of the new interpretive sign at Upper Conner Creek, completed in partnership with the Yurok Tribe Construction Corporation, and noted encouraging signs of native species using the restored floodplain.

Kiana reviewed recent issues of The River Riffle, which featured contributions from staff and partners covering local mushrooms, wildlife observations at restoration sites, and program updates. She also described ongoing development of the 2025 TRRP Annual Report, which will present a 25‑year narrative of adaptive management, organized across major program tools and science areas.

She shared several website improvements completed this quarter, including expanded Science on Tap archives, updated sediment and wood augmentation pages reorganized with past projects to increase accessibility for the public. Seasonal outreach efforts included flow notifications, construction notices, and direct communication with landowners near project sites. Kiana noted that recent in‑person conversations with residents have been positive and constructive.

She concluded with a preview of the upcoming outreach calendar, including multiple Science on Tap presentations, community sustainability and plant‑exchange events, school field programs, and a river tour for Cal Poly Humboldt, scheduled in June. Additional coordination is underway for tours with the Salmonid Restoration Federation. These efforts continue to expand community understanding and visibility of TRRP’s work along the Trinity River.

Science Branch

Eric Peterson, the TRRP Science Coordinator, provided an update covering major science initiatives, modeling work, monitoring reviews, and project proposals.

Limiting Factors Analysis (LFA)

The LFA is one of TRRP’s most significant multi‑year science efforts. Eric explained that:

TRRP is in Phase 2, where contractors are implementing the study plan.
The contractor, Kramer Fish Sciences, will deliver a final report in August 2026.
A June 23 lifecycle model workshop will train staff and work groups on using the population model.
The LFA now includes intense collaboration between:
- Kramer’s modeling team
- TRRP’s Interdisciplinary Team (IDT)
- The Scientific Advisory Board (SAB)

Some challenges include:

The lifecycle model cannot fully separate spring and fall Chinook juveniles due to limited data.
The model will still integrate adult distinctions where possible.

A special TMC meeting on Aug. 20 is planned for presentation of the final LFA report.

Central Valley Operations Update (Elizabeth Hadley, Reclamation)

Elizabeth Hadley, reported that Trinity Reservoir is at 91% capacity, with a projected peak near 94% in April. Despite early‑season storms, Northern California’s snowpack remains well below average, and warm temperatures are expected to produce only modest runoff. As a result, the CVP will rely more heavily on stored water through the spring and summer.

Hydropower operations continue to face constraints. Trinity Powerplant Unit 1 has completed its scheduled maintenance, while Unit 2 will be offline from November through early March. At Spring Creek Powerplant, one unit remains in extended overhaul until late this year.

Looking ahead, Elizabeth noted that a division‑wide transformer replacement program is planned for 2029–2031, requiring close coordination with TRRP to avoid conflicts with environmental flow needs. Workforce shortages also persist, though hiring is underway for plant mechanics and an electrical program manager, with additional recruitments expected later this year.

Trinity River Hatchery Update – (Derek Rupert, Reclamation)

The hatchery report noted that spring and fall Chinook and steelhead production targets are on track to be met this season. Coho salmon, however, returned in very low numbers, limiting the number of young fish that could be produced for the coming year.

A major focus of the update was the hatchery modernization project. Staff recently visited modern facilities in Idaho and Washington to gather ideas for the Trinity River Hatchery redesign. The updated facility is expected to include new adult holding ponds, a streamlined spawning building, improved water‑quality screening, updated incubation areas, and welcoming visitor spaces such as viewing windows and educational areas. The design package is expected this spring, with construction projected to begin in late 2026, depending on funding. Additional support will be needed to fully realize the modernization vision, including upgrades that are not yet covered by existing budgets.

Hatchery Integration Discussion – (Mike Orcutt & George Kausky Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries)

A joint discussion led by tribal representatives highlighted the need to better integrate hatchery operations with habitat restoration and fisheries management. Because each of these areas—habitat, hatchery, and harvest—tends to operate within its own system, the presenters emphasized that stronger coordination could improve salmon recovery.

Topics included the benefits of using more natural‑origin fish in hatchery broodstock, strategies for reducing domestication effects in hatchery fish, and how release timing and marking practices can shape downstream outcomes. Participants also discussed the importance of strengthening basin‑wide coordination and ensuring tribal co‑management remains central to future decision‑making.

Large Wood Implementation, Monitoring, and Management – (Reuben Smit, USFWS)

The presentation on large wood focused on how logs and natural woody material support healthy river ecosystems. Large wood helps form pools, create sheltered areas for young fish, and shape side channels. It also influences sediment movement and floodplain function.

Long‑term monitoring shows that placed wood often evolves into more complex structures over time. At some sites, pieces grow into full logjams, while at others, they move downstream and help seed new habitat features. Based on these findings, monitoring has shifted from counting individual pieces to assessing the volume, structure, and function of wood additions. The team will continue refining monitoring methods to better understand long‑term benefits.

2026 Gravel Augmentation Plan (Smokey Pittman, Applied River Sciences/Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries)

The gravel augmentation plan for 2026 focuses on supporting salmon spawning habitat in one of the most sediment‑starved reaches of the Trinity River. The Steel Bridge Day‑Use Area was selected for gravel placement after reviewing all existing sites. Crews will add approximately 2,000 cubic yards of spawning gravel to the inside bend of the river, where flows can shape it into riffles and bars.

In addition to gravel, several large logs made available through hazard‑tree removal near the site will be placed to help capture sediment and enhance habitat structure. The project will be monitored with drone surveys, tagged logs, and spawning‑season field observations. The Physical Work Group also plans to refine long‑term monitoring and objective‑setting for future gravel projects.

On the second day of the meeting, three major action items came before the TMC and all three passed with unanimous support. These included:

The approval to fund two FY26 science proposals
Advancing design for a critical fish‑passage project at Oregon Gulch in Junction City, Ca.
Selecting the 2026 spring flow hydrograph under the Program’s environmental flow management

Each decision is summarized below

FY26 Research Proposals (Eric Peterson, TRRP)

The Council first considered two science proposals that had been deferred from June due to budget uncertainty. With the FY26 appropriations now clarified, the TMC moved forward on both:

S3 Fish Production Model Upgrade
- Led by USGS, this project enhances the juvenile salmon growth model by incorporating variable food consumption, replacing the current single‑rate assumption. The upgrade will calibrate the model using foraging data and juvenile salmon stomach contents, making the tool more sensitive to real ecological conditions.
Thermal Heterogeneity Study Using Pond Turtles
- The Hoopa Valley Tribe and Applied River Sciences will survey biological response to temperature variation using northwestern pond turtles as indicators. Turtles remain in microhabitats longer than salmon fry, offering a clearer signal of thermal benefits from channel rehabilitation work.

After robust discussion, including how non‑fish wildlife objectives fit within the program’s legal mandates, the TMC unanimously approved both proposals. Members noted that the studies align with adopted science plan priorities and will generate valuable insights for flows, sediment and wood augmentation and channel rehabilitation restoration tools.

Oregon Gulch Culvert Fish Passage Project (James Lee, TRRP)

The second decision centered on the long‑problematic culvert at Oregon Gulch on Sky Ranch Road. The culvert is a full barrier to salmon and steelhead and contributes to recurring road failures, yet past attempts to design a replacement stalled due to landowner constraints.

Following new commitments from Trinity County to assist with landowner coordination—as well as clarity that the County cannot fund construction—the TMC unanimously approved funding for the design phase of a fish‑friendly replacement. Once a design and cost estimate are complete, TRRP and partner tribes will seek outside construction funding. If external funding cannot be secured, the project can be reconsidered through a future watershed prioritization process.

Members expressed optimism that a shovel‑ready design will create new opportunities for state, federal, or philanthropic funding to restore access to miles of potential habitat.

Hydrograph recommendation for the remainder of Water Year 2026 (Patrick Flynn, Trinity County)

This year marks the second cycle of the three‑year winter flow variability experiment. With both February and March B120 forecasts classified as “Dry”, the program implemented a 20,000 AF elevated baseflow beginning March 16.

For spring flows, the Flow Workgroup presented two sets of hydrographs for the TMC’s consideration:

Set A: Emphasizes geomorphic benefit, taking advantage of the winter synchronization peak
Set B: Emphasizes extended inundation for riparian seedling recruitment and amphibian needs

While fish models showed limited sensitivity between the options, non‑fish models—including cottonwood recruitment, foothill yellow‑legged frog habitat, and bedload transport—consistently favored Set A under both dry and normal April B120 conditions.

The TMC unanimously adopted Set A, with the appropriate variant triggered by the April B120 determination. Members also highlighted the importance of continued analysis of Safety‑of‑Dams releases, which influence winter flow dynamics and are being fully evaluated in Reclamation’s ongoing EIS.

“Stage 0” Watershed Restoration at Corral Gulch (Bridger Cohen, WRTC)

TMC received a detailed presentation on the Corral Gulch meadow restoration project performed by the Watershed Research and Training Center, the Yurok Tribe, in cooperation with the US Forest Service. The restoration followed a “Stage 0” valley reset in the South Fork Trinity watershed – the second known project following this concept design in the state of California. The project reconnected the historic floodplain, has thus far raised groundwater levels, and dramatically slowed a previously channelized flow. Early monitoring shows remarkably fast hydrologic response, vegetative regeneration, and renewed wildlife use. This presentation sparked productive discussion about restoration techniques, long‑term monitoring, and opportunities for applying similar approaches in other areas in the Trinity River watershed.

Looking Ahead

The meeting closed with planning for the June session, which will include FY27 budget development, additional environmental flow evaluation study plans, and early discussion of the next TRRP science symposium. Council members also requested a future briefing on how safety‑of‑dams releases are analyzed relative to flow scheduling and biological performance, to ensure full transparency in hydrologic decision‑making.

Return to the April Newsletter

Water Year 2026 (Oct. 15 – Apr. 15)

Posted on March 13, 2026March 16, 2026 by Kiana Abel

March Forecast – “Dry” with potential for “Normal”

Surveyors from the Watershed Training and Research Center are encountering minimal snow pack and melt in the Trinity Alps.

A swale has melted out in a meadow to be traversed on the route to the snow course during the February snow surveys conducted by the Watershed Research and Training Center. [Watershed Research and Training Center]

Snow Survey Results (from February)

“This was one of the wettest snow surveys in recent history for our crews.” Josh Smith, Watershed Stewardship Program Director described. “It rained at 7,000′ and every ephemeral swale had running water. It was a maze of streams running through the meadows and forests that made travel difficult and time consuming. We hope that the temps drop and/or we get some more snow storms in the near future!”

From a WRTC Facebook Post: February 2026 statistics, with February 2025 measurements in parentheses for comparison.

	Bear Basin	Red Rock Mountain	Shimmy Lake
Snow height	40″ (80.5″)	41″ (101.5″)	51.5″ (99″)
Snow Water Equivalent	16.5″ (32.5″)	16″ (43.5′)	21″ (42.5″)

Trinity River Watershed Mar. Forecast

The volume of environmental flow releases for the Trinity River Restoration Program’s Wet-Season Baseflow Period (Feb. 15-Apr. 14) are determined by a conservative monthly inflow projection for Trinity Reservoir from the California Department of Water Resources (90% B120) in February, March with the final determination in April.

The current period within the Trinity River Restoration Program environmental flow management is the Wet-Season Baseflow Period. The California Department of Water Resources March 90% B120 declaration was published on Mar. 9 as “Dry” with the 90% determination at 910,000 acre feet.

Screenshot taken from the California Department of Water Resources March B120

The Program’s Water-Year Volume Allocation as specified by the Record of Decision is outlined in the table below. The far left column is the threshold amount of state forecasted inflow in the Trinity Reservoir listed in acre feet which determines the center column, water year type. Then in the right column is listed the allocation to restoration for that water year, which includes baseflows.

This image has an empty alt attribute; its file name is Screenshot-2025-02-04-155416.png

With a Mar. B120 determination of “Dry” the Mar. 15 – Apr. 15 period will increase releases from 300 CFS (winter baseflow) to the Trinity River by adding 20,000 AF into the schedule during this period.

This image has an empty alt attribute; its file name is Screenshot-2026-02-04-154843.png — Environmental Flow Implementation Decision Tree from the Trinity River Winter Flow Project (Abel etal. 2022)

The hydrograph using 20K AF during the next period is the following:

Schedule of recommended flow releases from Lewiston Dam to the Trinity
River during the Elevated Baseflow Period (Mar. 15 – Apr. 14).

In April, the Program implements a spring snow-melt and recession hydrograph following the final B120 water year determination by the Department of Water Resources, which is typically announced around Apr. 10.

Trinity Reservoir

Current reservoir data does not play a role in the WY26 forecast or determinations, however levels are important to keep track of and can be accessed by following this link: Trinity Reservoir Daily Data (CDEC) – click the link for daily data.

Storage on [Mar. 12, 2026]: 2,205,682 AF
Capacity: 90%
Historic 15 Year Average (for this date): 129%
Average storage for [Mar. 12]: 1,7147,721 AF

Return to the Mar. Newsletter

Featured Article – MAR26

Posted on March 13, 2026March 16, 2026 by Kiana Abel

Ecology in Motion: Wildlife Interactions After River Rehabilitation

By: Simone Groves, Riparian Ecologist, Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries with contributions from James Lee, Implementation Branch Chief and Kiana Abel, Public Affairs Specialist – Trinity River Restoration Program

Disturbance: A Natural Driver of River Ecosystems

Disturbance is a fundamental ecological force across western North America. At small scales, a fallen tree opens space and sunlight; at larger scales, wildfire or major floods reshape entire landscapes. Historically, the Trinity River experienced seasonal floods that scoured floodplains, deposited sediment and wood, and reset vegetation communities. These events initiated ecological processes that made the river corridor dynamic and biologically rich.

Succession in River Environments

Following major disturbance, the floodplains of rivers like the Trinity River undergo predictable successional phases. After high flows deposit bare gravel and sand, these new surfaces become recruitment beds for species like black cottonwood (one of the clearest examples of primary succession along the Trinity). In other cases, where vegetation is cleared but soils and roots remain, secondary succession accelerates recovery. In both processes, disturbance serves as the starting point that enables riparian vegetation to establish, mature, and ultimately support riparian wildlife.

Riparian Vegetation Depends on Disturbance

Recently deposited sediment and wood which were naturally recruited during winter storms along with channel rehabilitation (2024) and flow management on the Trinity River. [Aaron Martin, Yurok Tribal Fisheries Department]

Riparian habitats occupy a small fraction of the landscape, yet they are used by most wildlife species in the Trinity River watershed during some part of their life cycles. Without periodic disturbance, riparian vegetation is gradually replaced by upland species that are less valuable to wildlife. The river once maintained this vegetation naturally through regular high flow events. Today, with Trinity and Lewiston Dams reducing the timing and magnitude of floods, the natural disturbance regime has been significantly altered.

Because large, channel-shaping floods no longer occur downstream of the dams, channel rehabilitation and the use of big machines to lower floodplains has become an essential tool to reintroduce areas no longer available to the river for primary and secondary succession. Recently completed projects such as the Upper Connor Creek and Oregon Gulch Channel rehabilitation projects in Junction City, Ca. are two such examples. While the designs were unique to each location overall each project aimed to lower floodplain surfaces, reconnected the main stem Trinity with floodplain areas, increase channel complexity, and distribute large wood to mimic features historically formed by floods. Although mechanical disturbance differs in scale and timing from natural floods, it provides the ecological reset needed to restart successional processes.

Observed Wildlife Response

As new surfaces at Upper Connor Creek stabilized during and after construction, wildlife quickly responded.

Insects were among the earliest arrivals. Butterflies and native bees collected salts on wet sediments, velvet ants moved rapidly across disturbed soils, and dragonflies patrolled the project perimeter. As winter approached, clusters of lady beetles gathered within the shelter of planted bunchgrasses.

Small mammals moving up the food chain, rodents moved in to the area soon after excavation stopped. Evidence of ground squirrels, and mice were found occupying large wood structures and burrows developed near newly planted bunch grasses.

Gray fox activity increased the following spring, including a mother using the site to forage for rodents supported by the new habitat conditions. Although one fox pup later died on-site from what appeared to be disease, the presence of fox highlights their role as early participants in post-disturbance ecosystems.

Acorn woodpeckers took advantage of acorns dispersed during revegetation efforts, caching them in nearby upland forests. While it is too early to evaluate long-term oak establishment, this interaction illustrates how wildlife intersects with restoration actions.

Crews harvested acorns from an oak woodland to be used at the project site.

Bears frequently visited the site, leaving tracks and scat near preserved patches of California grape that were intentionally maintained during construction. Bears also contribute to revegetation by dispersing seeds from parent plants elsewhere along the river corridor.

Beaver activity increased as willows became established. Although their role in thinning willow stands is not well documented, beavers strongly influence species composition by selectively cutting cottonwood and ash while leaving certain willow species. Many cut stems resprout vigorously, expanding the footprint of riparian vegetation.

Predators like mink, racoon and river otter leave their mark with tracks and scat on newly deposited sediments and near planted vegetation. Their presence reflects the site’s increasing habitat complexity and improved food availability.

Crawdad consumed by a predator at Upper Connor Construction site.

The Disturbance–Succession Loop in Action

The rapid and varied wildlife responses at Upper Connor Creek demonstrate the close link between disturbance and ecological renewal. While mechanical disturbance may seem disruptive during construction, it re-establishes the foundational conditions that riparian vegetation—and the wildlife depending on it—require. In a system constrained by dams, channel rehabilitation functions as a surrogate for natural forces that once shaped the Trinity River.

As the site continues to develop, ongoing observations will help refine how future projects balance engineering and ecology. With each restored floodplain, we gain a clearer understanding of how planned disturbance supports a dynamic and resilient river ecosystem.

Unless otherwise noted, all photos were provided by Simone Groves, Riparian Ecologist – Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries Department.

Return to the Mar. Newsletter

Resources

Reice, S.R., Wissmar, R.C. & Naiman, R.J. Disturbance regimes, resilience, and recovery of animal communities and habitats in lotic ecosystems. Environmental Management 14, 647–659 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02394715 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02394715

McKelvey, Kevin S. 2015. The effects of disturbance and succession on wildlife habitat and animal communities [Chapter 11]. In: Morrison, M. L.; Mathewson, H. A., editors. Wildlife Habitat Conservation: Concepts, Challenges, and Solutions. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 143-156. https://research.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/48033

Timothy J. Beechie, David A. Sear, Julian D. Olden, George R. Pess, John M. Buffington, Hamish Moir, Philip Roni, Michael M. Pollock, Process-based Principles for Restoring River Ecosystems, BioScience, Volume 60, Issue 3, March 2010, Pages 209–222, https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2010.60.3.7

Hillhouse, Grady. “Why Rivers Move.” Practical Engineering: Why Rivers Move, YouTube, 7 Mar. 2023, www.youtube.com/watch?v=UBivwxBgdPQ

Hobbs, N. T., and R. A. Spowart. “Effects of Prescribed Fire on Nutrition of Mountain Sheep and Mule Deer during Winter and Spring.” The Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 48, no. 2, 1984, pp. 551–60. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3801188. Accessed 11 Feb. 2026. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3801188

Steinel A, Parrish CR, Bloom ME, Truyen U. Parvovirus infections in wild carnivores. J Wildl Dis. 2001 Jul;37(3):594-607. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-37.3.594. PMID: 11504234. https://jwd.kglmeridian.com/view/journals/jwdi/37/3/article-p594.xml

McNew, Lance & Dahlgren, David & Beck, Jeffrey. (2023). Rangeland Wildlife Ecology & Conservation. 10.1007/978-3-031-34037-6. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/373829269_Rangeland_Wildlife_Ecology_Conservation

Plant Spotlight – Poison Oak and Skunk Brush

Posted on August 27, 2025August 27, 2025 by Kiana Abel

Toxicodendron diversilobum and Rhus trilobata

image comparison — On the left is poison oak, and the right is skunk brush. Notice the distinct ‘stem’ on the central leaflet on the poison oak plant. Skunk brush leaflets do not have this feature. *[Simone Groves, Hoopa Valley Fisheries Department]*

Editor’s note: The shrub with the common names which include skunk brush, basket bush, fragrant sumac, lemon sumac, and lemonade bush is known across North America as both Rhus trilobata and Rhus aromatica. The nomenclature in this document follows McBain and Trush (2005) and refers to the plant as Rhus trilobata.

Have you ever walked in the woods and tried to identify poison oak along the path? Some folks walk with extreme caution as soon as they step from pavement and defined trails, driven by fear of injurious rash caused by this plant. The most common way that I hear folks identify poison oak is through a common rhyme “leaves of three, let it be.” This is an easy phrase to remember, but there are some loopholes in this simple rhyme. There are several look-alike species that cause no harm, and are in fact quite tasty, and can be eaten. Let’s start with the commonly defined ID features used in the Jepson manual to distinguish the two genera.

Poison Oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum) has axillary flowers which appear between the leaf axles with a pedicel, or stem at the base which causes the flowers and fruit to be spaced apart; leaflets adaxially shiny or oily-looking on the top; fruit creamy white or papery looking.

Skunk brush (Rhus trilobata) (also called basket bush, lemon sumac, fragrant sumac, and lemonade bush) flowers appear on the ends of the branches, also called “terminal”; flowers are often nearly sessile or appear tightly packed; leaflets dull, not very shiny; fruit red and often sticky. There’s an interesting additional flower mannerism in skunk brush – the flowers often are only male or only female on individual plants, but sometimes bisexual flowers can also be found on plants, this term is called polygamodioecious. This is why a whole area will have no fruit, and then a patch of plants might be loaded full of fruit.

Speaking of its red fruit, skunk brush’s other common names, lemonade bush and lemon sumac, refer to the berries. They have a sour, lemony flavor to them. It is said that early pioneers steeped the berries in water, and then added sugar to make lemonade. The berries are also eaten directly and are considered an important food source by some Native American tribes. Many wild animals consume the berries of both poison oak and skunk brush, particularly birds and small mammals, although they are not a preferred food source. Their tendency to stick to the stems through the winter makes them good emergency food for animals when other foods are scarce.

Skunk Brush (*Rhus trilobata*) with fall berries. [Simone Groves, Hoopa Valley Fisheries Department]

Expanding beyond the features that the Jepson uses for ID there can be a lot more subtlety of distinguishing observations between the two species. The more that you look at these two, the more you will learn to differentiate between them in your own way! Here are a few more features that I have noticed over the years.

Leaves

Remember “leaves of three, let them be”? Well the more accurate saying should be, “leaflets of three, let them be” because according to plant anatomists, the three “leaves” on a poison oak plant are actually a single leaf, divided into three leaflets. Poison oak appears to have a stem on the terminal leaflet which separates it from the basal lobes. The leaves often have 3-dimensionality to them, either with ruffled edges, or a central crease along the midrib of the leaf, with venation standing out as slightly white when viewed from above. Any leaf features on poison oak can be highly variable and thus expect it to surprise you at times. As field botanists often joke that poison oak will often take on the look of nearby plants.

Skunk brush tends to have the front leaflet be a little larger and the back appear slightly reduced in size. These leaves do not have a stem attaching the leaflets together. The leaves tend to be extraordinarily flat or could be described as “2D.” Often times the venation is only distinctly visible from the abaxial or underside of the leaf. Sometimes there is a little trench-like crease from the topside but the veins don’t stand out looking down on it.

The last feature that is helpful for differentiating these two species, is the color and mannerisms of the stems of each plant, even when dormant. Poison oak tends to have yellowish stems, often times with hibernating buds that look like little pink primordial hands. Poison oak is also known for making little adventitious roots on the branches which helps it climb trees and spread aggressively over the ground. It isn’t unusual to see poison oak growing as either a shrub or a vine (but it’s not the same as ‘poison ivy’, which is not found in California.

The “yellowish” stems of poison oak. [Simone Groves, Hoopa Valley Fisheries Department]

Skunk brush has branches that look ashy grey or pinkish purple and in early spring they tend to be layered in a tender fuzz that is reminiscent of the velvet covering a young deer’s antlers. Also, the smell of skunk brush is distinctly pleasant, both when cut and when burned. One might imagine these sticks being used for incense, or something similar.

The tender fuzz covered stems of skunk brush. [Simone Groves, Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries]

Both species tend to come out of winter dormancy around the same time. However the first features to awaken in poison oak are its new shiny leaves, whereas the first feature to appear for skunk brush, are the flowers. Often times the timing of this awakening from dormancy is highly variable year to year and can track the warmth changing around the landscape in a very intimate way.

Comparison of the two species in early spring when poison oak shows leaves first and skunk brush’s flowers are first. [Simone Groves, Hoopa Valley Fisheries Department]

Initially, botanists placed both poison oak and skunk brush in the same genus- Rhus. This name is Greek for ‘rhous’ which means flow, or stream. Some have thought that this might refer to the sticky sap that is excreted when cut, but others have rejected this claim. The reclassification of poison oak to its own genus “Toxicodendron” occurred in the early 20th century as the genus was given definition and separated out those representatives within Rhus that caused skin irritation. Toxicodendron means “poison – tree” in Greek which was also a contentious definition because technically the plant is not poisonous, but is an irritant, and in fact has many medicinal and beneficial properties. In Hupa language the word for poison oak is k’e:k’ilye:ch’. In Yurok the word for poison oak is me’yk’welep’. The Karuk word for poison oak is kusvêep.

Urushiol is the chemical present in the Toxicodendron genus that is renowned for irritating the skin. This oil is described as similar to machine oil in its difficulty to remove. Some recommendations suggest removing it using a sudsy soap and an abrasive scrubbing surface under cold water. Also, some home remedies recommend rubbing clay or dirt on fresh oils as it can absorb the oils and reduce the interactions with your skin cells. According to the National Library of Medicine, the reaction caused by urushiol is a Type IV Hypersensitivity reaction which is often stimulated in 48-72 hours after exposure and is a T-cell mediated immune reaction, suggesting that it is the between-cell interactions that cause the body’s immune response to the oils.

As with many plants in the California landscape, both poison oak and skunk brush have a fire relationship. Although poison oak burning can aerosolize the urushiol, if the fire develops to just the right amount of heat and time of day, a completely safe fire can “stand up” and send the toxic smoke harmlessly into the upper atmosphere. Some indigenous descriptions report that the current prevalence of poison oak in forest understories is due to the lack of short fire return intervals on the landscape. Skunk brush was used by many tribes in California as a basketry stick. These stems were burned, just as hazel was for its shoots. In my personal experience burning with North Fork Mono led by cultural fire practitioner and Tribal Chairman, Ron Good, when the color of the ash turns purple, it can indicate that the fire and embers are the right intensity and is cool enough to cultivate the healthy regrowth of the plant. With burning and fire intensity, ash color and burned soil color as well as charcoal remains can all be an indicators of the temperature of the flames and their effects on the plant and soil communities. For more information dig into the resources at the FRAMES federally hosted fire effects resource page.

A common medicinal concept held by many of the tribes in our northern California region is that the medicine can be found near the cause of the problem. Poison oak is the classic example of this. Mugwort is a strong medicine for neutralizing poison oak, in particular salves made from it, but also a tea, taken internally can soothe the body’s reaction. Other common medicines include manzanita and madrone bark which a cooled tea of these can soothe the blisters and calm the body’s reaction. This idea can remind us that rather than thinking of the world as full of dangers and poisons that lie just beyond the edge of the path, rather that medicines and foods are always near to provide support and soothe the ails that arise along the way.

Resources:

Simone Groves, Riparian Ecologist, Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries

Simone is first generation California transplant of Scottish descent raised in the unceded territories of the Raymatush in the rural west peninsula of the SF Bay where farmers, farm workers and hippies form the heart of the small town. She graduated in 2016 from Humboldt State University with a BS in Botany and has worked in the outskirts of rural Humboldt county on Natural Resource and Land management since 2013. She is passionate about plants and their interactions with dynamic systems as a mechanism for relearning our human-landscape interdependence.

Plant Spotlight – Mule’s ears and arrowleaf balsamroot

Posted on July 16, 2025July 22, 2025 by Kiana Abel

Sun Seekers, Fire Carriers, and Medicine Keepers

Narrowleaf Mule-Ears (*Wyethia angustifolia*). [Trystin Knowland via iNatrualist]

Arrowleaf Balsamroot (*Balsamorhiza sagittata*) McGee Creek, Ca [sierramichelle via iNaturalist]

Mule’s ears (of the genus Wyethia) and arrowleaf balsamroot (Bupthalmium sagittata) are two flowering plants that to the untrained eye are so similar they are often mistaken for the other. Both herbaceous plants not only look very similar but are a part of the same family, subfamily, tribe and subtribe of plants. Further, genetic testing has confirmed that these two plants are the closest relative to one another. However, distinguishing characteristics do exist. Read on to learn about each plant and their unique place in the northern California biota.

Narrowleaf Mule-Ears (Wyethia angustifolia)

Wyethia is a genus of North American flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, more commonly known as the aster, daisy or sunflower family. Wyethia are commonly referred to as mule’s ears. The genus Wyethia can typically be identified by their leaves that connect to the base of the plant (basal leaves) and 1-2 ft tall flowering stalk with a sun-flower-like head. Most people would probably see this flower and call it a “native sunflower” because of its large yellow radial flower (or inflorescence). Other common names besides “mule’s ears” are “California compassplant” and “black sunflower.” In Yurok language they are called skep’ol, in Hupa they are called sa’liwh. The etymology of the name “compassplant” likely comes from the flower’s ability to track the sunlight through the day. The leaves are fuzzy or velvety and have a lance-shaped blade (long and narrow) which can distinguish it from its closest look-alike.

Photo: Narrowleaf Mule-Ears (Wyethia angustifolia). [Steven Clinton via iNatrualist]

There are several species of Wyethia [1], of these the most commonly found in the Klamath Mountains is Narrow Leaf Mule Ears (Wyethia angustifolia) which grows in stream banks and springs at elevations from 0-5,500 feet. You’ll typically see it flower in the spring to summer depending on its elevation. Mule’s ears also have a characteristically sticky milky sap that can be toxic to the touch when pruned or broken.

Narrow-leaved Mule Ears. [Jean Pawek via CalPhotos]

Arrowleaf Balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata)

Balsamhoriza, otherwise called arrowleaf balsamroot, is also part of the Aasteracaea family. Arrowleaf balsamroot can be distinguished from mule’s ears when comparing the leaf shape, color and tiny hairs on the underside of the leaf. Arrowleaf balsamroot prefers colder and dryer climates and is found in mountain fields but can also be a common plant in the understory of conifer forests. It ranges from Colorado, west into the Sierra Nevada and north into Canada.

Photo: Arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata). [Simone Groves, Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries]

Compare the two leaf systems in the below images.

Narrowleaf Mule-Ears (*Wyethia angustifolia*) near Napa, Ca [Silverado Jim via iNaturalist]

Arrowleaf balsamroot (*Balsamorhiza sagittata*) leaf near Truckee, Ca. [cmaci via iNaturalist]

Similar to a turnip or a carrot, the roots of both mule’s ears and arrowleaf balsamroot have a long branching tap root in which the dormant plant resides during winter. The roots can penetrate over 6ft deep in the soil and spread 3-4 feet out away from the plant. Every year the vegetation dies back completely and will rise again from the earth in spring.

Narrowleaf Mule-Ears tap root (*Wyethia angustifolia*) near Mill Valley, Ca [Nen Sims via iNaturalist]

Mule’s ears occupy a range of vegetation types, including many arid and alpine communities whose habitat contains a mixture of dry-climate tree species and native grassland. These plants can handle harsh soil conditions, with very little topsoil and can be an indicator of disturbance activities, as their seeds germinate well in exposed soil. However, if an area is intensively grazed, these plants can be impacted. The young tender leaves of the plant in spring are sought after by ungulates and their populations can be eliminated by persistent grazing. Part of this is because they have dormant buds near the surface of the soil at ground level. If the shoot tips are eaten or damaged, the plant may be impacted.

However, if populations establish, underground roots can be quite large and split multiple times which can allow new plants to form. This can form a circular patch radiating outwards from a central spot. The above ground portion of the plant dies back each summer and fall and the remaining dry material covering the ground can help carry the fire through patches of rock helping to gently move fire through an area. When the material burns, it adds a layer of ash to the soil, slowly accumulating topsoil and allowing new places for grassland to establish.

Shrubs that associate with a mule’s ears or arrowleaf balsamroot typically form fire risk patterns that are classified as a low-growing fuel class with a moderate to occasional high severity fire. Fires in these communities are often a “Fire Mosaic” where conditions result in a patchwork of burn severity between low and high severity depending on the fuel loading, and fire weather conditions under which it burns. The concept of a fire mosaic can be applied to much of California’s natural landscapes. Plant species throughout California, and the world, create specific fuel conditions through their physical bodies and life cycle strategies that often set conditions for the plants to return. In the dynamic interplay between life and death, growth and fire, persistent multi-generational patterns throughout history create these plant-and-fire relationships.

Mule’s ear and arrowleaf balsamroot are both very strong medicinal plants and are also used as a food source. Mule’s ear leaves have been used by the Miwok tribe to make a tea that helps to reduce fever and stimulate perspiration. The roots have been used to make a poultice which can reduce swelling, soothe burns, and according to Shishoni tribe – can be an “unfailing cure for syphilis” and wash made with the roots can be used to treat Measles. Today, places where these plants grow are considered medicine places and should be treated with respect. Various tribes document using the roots of the plants as one might eat Jerusalem artichokes, baked in an underground oven with warm rocks for several days.

The large seeds produced by both plants are a favorite for birds and humans and are akin to sunflower seeds. There are several species of insects that use the developing seeds as a host plant and many different native bees such as megachile (leaf-cutter bee) species have a relationship with open pollinated flowers which can be very productive nectar producers. Open pollinated flowers tend to be the most frequently visited flower shapes because they provide a large landing pad and lots of space for pollinators to move around on them.

Photo: Arrowleaf balsamroot seed head and seeds. Photo USDI BLM OR030 SOS.

Mule’s ears and arrowleaf balsamroot are more than just striking wildflowers of the northern California landscape—they are living testaments to the deep interconnection between plant life, fire, wildlife, and human cultures. As food, medicine, and ecological agents, these plants reveal the intricate relationships that have long existed between people and place. Understanding their roles in ecosystem function and traditional knowledge invites us to view the land not as a backdrop, but as a living partner in our shared future.

Resources

Wyethia – Wikipedia
CalScape – Wyethia
Wyethia angustifolia
Native American Ethnobotany Database – Wyethia
Native American Medicinal Plants: An Ethnobotanical Dictionary by Daniel E. Moreman
Natural History Museum Data Portal: Wyethia
FEIS USFS Database: Wyethia
Reduction of Survival and Growth of Young Pinus jeffreyi by an Herbaceous Perennial, Wyethia mollis
Impacts of Predispersal Seed Predation on Seed Production of Wyethia amplexicaulis, Agoseris glauca, and Crepis acuminata
Wyethia on iNat
Balsamorhiza on iNat
Etymology online: Girasole
Plant guide for arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata)

Simone Groves, Riparian Ecologist, Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries

Simone is first generation California transplant of scottish descent raised in the unceded territories of the Raymatush in the rural west peninsula of the SF Bay where farmers, farm workers and hippies form the heart of the small town. She graduated in 2016 from Humboldt State University with a BS in Botany and has worked in the outskirts of rural Humboldt county on Natural Resource and Land management since 2013. She is passionate about plants and their interactions with dynamic systems as a mechanism for relearning our human-landscape interdependence.

Return to the July Newsletter

Plant Spotlight – Cattail

Posted on May 12, 2025January 29, 2026 by Kiana Abel

By: Simone Groves, Riparian Ecologist, Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries

Cattail versus Tule

Typha latifolia & Schoenoplectus acutus

Cattails may be one of the most familiar sedges with its endearing name and inflorescence (or flower), which looks like a corn dog perennially sticking out of the tall green walls of a marsh. However, the cattail’s cousin, tule (also referred to as bull-rush) occupies similar habitat yet is not able to persist in the languishing habitat conditions that emergent wetlands undergo today.

The world’s center of diversity for cattail is in Eurasia with 6 species found on every subcontinent. North America also has several different species (9 in North America) including 2 species native to California. Additionally, there are several species from the Eurasian subcontinent that can be found in North America, including locally, which have been shown to exhibit invasive behavior.

The most common species of cattail is Typha latifolia and the most common species of tule or bull-rush is Schoenoplectus acutus. Schoenoplectus or tule are represented by 25 species, 15 of which are on the North American subcontinent, and 9 of which are native to Californian wetlands. Schoenoplectus californicus  and  S. acutus are the large stature tule common in Trinity County.

Cattail and tule are both around the same ‘stature’ or blade height which represents the overall plant height, however there are several ways to tell the two apart.

*Typha* species botanical illustration in Flora of North America by John Myers.

Cattail has a wide flat blade that is arranged in a ‘fan’ like an iris. Looking at the leaves alone one might think that this species is an Iris. Tule has a round hollow leaf, not flat at all, which is unusual for a sedge! The typical saying for sedges is: “sedges have edges” and “rushes are round” but tule breaks this rule.

CalFlora Typha latifolia. Ron Vanderhoff CC-BY-NC 4.0

Also, the flowers of the plants look very different. With cattail, it’s common name is descriptive of the flower. In many sedge species, there is a male flower at the top of the inflorescence, and female at the bottom. The fluffy stuff that you’re used to seeing on a cattail is actually the seeds! Each has a separate wind-blown umbrella to help it land far away from the mother plant. Sometimes it can take a full rotation from fall to spring before the seeds will release from the corn-dog flower head, which can coincide with the nesting period for many birds. Cattail  seeds are not very nutrient dense, but you might find birds harvesting beaks full of fluff to line their nests. 

In tule, the seeds are born in a little toss of beads on the end of a string which emerges from the top of the tall, round leaf stalks. Tule seeds (in contrast to cattail seeds) are desirable as bird food, and songbirds in the marsh can often be found hanging crookedly off a tule leaf and eating the ornament of seeds from the top of the plant.

*Typha_latifolia* with *Equisetum*. [E. Makings, ASU Vascular Plant Herbarium]

These plants both require slow-water habitat. Cattail can handle wider extremes of environmental conditions, such as more scour, a higher tolerance of both inundation and dryness, and a greater ability to establish from windblown seeds.

Tule on the other hand, requires backwater areas with very little scour, specific amounts of perennial inundation and cannot usually tolerate completely dry conditions (6). Oxygen is often the limiting factor for primary productivity in hydric wetland soils. This suggests that when tule experiences good growing conditions, it can facilitate survival of other oxygen-dependent species (which is typically considered more desirable for diversity in aquatic environments). Tule and cattail are often competitive bedmates and cattail will usually win the inexorable struggle when the two spar for habitat.

The Latin derivative for cattail, Typha, may come from the Greek word typhein, to smoke or to emit smoke; or typhe meaning “cat’s tail” but the true reason for using this Greek root is not known today. Some resources today often find these descriptions to be confusing because it is hard to understand why this plant might be described as ‘smoke’ unless one has a relationship between fire and wetland communities, and so, many people call it cattail because either interpretation could be an explanation for its name. This plant language offers us an opportunity to be curious and listen to others to unravel the answer.

A close up of cattail seeds. [Steve Matson]

Historically California tribes have an intimate relationship to wetland habitats. Many tribes will refer to the wetland as the “medicine cabinet” or “drugstore” as many species foundational to healthy living within ecosystems can be found in these habitats. Additionally, in California, burning would be carried out in wetland communities to help maintain the health of the tule and maintain the balance of this critical habitat for both ecosystem function and human health (9, 11, 12, 13).

European history documents cattail flower heads utilized as slow burning torches that were very smoky and may have helped to repel insects. Also, many historical references to “reed” are referring to cattail, including biblical references (21).

In local languages, the Hupa people describe tule as tł’ohtse’ (17). Karuk people describe tule as taprarahtunvêech for living plants or taprárah for the plant in use as a mat or sewn object (18). Yurok people describe tule and cattail synonymously as ‘wehlkoh meaning “leaves woven together to make a mat or raincoat” (24).

In plain English, cattail  can also be called “bull rush” which leads us back to the reason why these two species are paired together in this article! How can we tell which “bull rush” is the true bull rush?! One of the great struggles with plants is the ability to communicate effectively about which individual is being described from person-to-person. This is a challenge that has been handed down through many generations and has led us to the current era of the California Jepson Manual and using dichotomous keys and Latin to separate different plant descriptions from one another. For this reason, the term “bull rush” or “rush” can be an ambiguous description, but for this article it is important to create distinction.

The fossil record of cattail can be traced back to the Paleogene part of the Cenozoic, which is when non-avian dinosaurs went extinct. This era is marked in the geologic record by the iridium anomaly along with the deposition of several other transition metals which can be toxic for animal consumption. This was at the same time as mammalian and vertebrate diversity expanded dramatically and the circumpolar current began to form. Both cattail and tule can bio-accumulate toxic minerals and provide filtration for slow water habitats. One can imagine how this may have supported survival of new life in a stressful environment (23).

Both humans and animals have a long history of using cattail and tule. All parts of both of these plants are edible at various life-history stages (10, 14, 15). The roots of both plants are thick and starchy and have been harvested, cultivated and tended by ancient humans before agricultural practices began. The mashed-up starch can also be used to staunch bleeding and disinfect wounds.

Cattail  shoots are usually harvested when young. They look and feel like a leek and have a similar texture when cooked, with a milder flavor. The pollen is high in protein and can be used like flour to thicken soups or make pancakes. Stems of cattail can be made into a tea to treat whooping cough (16). The fluffy seeds of cattail have been used as diapers, sanitary napkins and for dressing wounds by humankind worldwide with it’s soft absorptive features.

Tule’s young shoots can be eaten like asparagus but mature leaves can act as an emetic, causing vomiting. Tule’s most famous use is for fiber. Many tribes throughout California in particular have used tule leaves for houses, weaving sleeping mats and roofing for houses as well as tule boats (22).

Tule and cattails provide very important habitat for birds in particular. Beyond a source of sustenance, wetland birds also use these habitats for the edge effect that they create for protection. The aerial friction that these plants provide, creates a buffer from extreme weather conditions within the boundary layer of a wetland, which is typically a pretty exposed environment. Both of these species can be used in botanical wetland delineation to establish protected habitats (23).

Both cattail (Typha latifolia) and tule (Schoenoplectus acutus) play vital roles in the ecology of wetland environments, serving not only as crucial habitats for various wildlife but also as important resources for human communities throughout history. Their unique characteristics, from the distinct morphology of their leaves to their varied reproductive strategies, highlight the biodiversity present within these ecosystems. Furthermore, understanding their ecological functions and cultural significance can foster greater appreciation and stewardship of wetlands – a critically important yet declining habitat area within our watersheds.

Resources

Berkeley Jepson manual: Typha

iNaturalist: Typha

Typha under stress

Fire Effects Information System (FEIS)

CNPS Manual of California vegetation: Schoenoplectus acutus

Schoenoplectus californicus at Different Life-History Stages to Hydrologic Regime

Soil redox dynamics under dynamic hydrologic regimes – A review

Flora of North America: Typha

Miwok Cultural Fire Perspective: Don Hankins of Chico State

Revised phylogeny and historical biogeography of the cosmopolitan aquatic plant genus Typha (Typhaceae)

Fire and Water in Yosemite

Evaluation of Restoration Techniques and management practices of tule pertaining to eco-cultural use by Irene A Vasquez

FIRE in California’s Ecosystems, Chapter 19: M. Kat Anderson

Origin, Classification and Distribution of Typha Species a Paradigm forUnderstanding the Biology and Ecology of the Wetland Emergent PlantSpecies

International Journal of Pharmaceutical research and Applications: Typha Species overview

Native American Medicinal Plants: An Ethnobotanical Dictionary by Daniel E. Moreman

Hupa: Typha

Karuk: Tule

Flora of North America: Typha Latifolia Illustration by John Myers

Flora of North America: Shoenoplectus tabernaemontani by John Myers

Ethnobotany of foraged food and peculiar produce: Cattail culinary uses

NRCS: Schoenoplectus acutus

GEI Consultants: Navigating the Murky Waters: A Guide to Wetland Delineations

Yurok Language Project UC Berkeley

Simone Groves, Riparian Ecologist, Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries

Return to the May Newsletter

Water Year 2025 (Oct. 15 – Apr. 15)

Posted on February 12, 2025February 14, 2025 by Kiana Abel

Water Year 25 thus far has been a good year for Trinity Reservoir. In October, Trinity Reservoir measured in at 70% full with 1.7 million acre feet. Seasonal storms have recently pushed storage over 2 million acre feet (or 84%). In December, flows were held steady at 1500 cfs through January and increased to 3500 cfs after several atmospheric river systems passed through in early February.

Trinity Reservoir December 2024 [Kiana Abel, Trinity River Restoration Program]

Feb. Forecast – California-Nevada River Forecast Center

Prior to the official determination, which is published around the 10th of the month, water managers follow the California-Nevada River Forecast Center Median forecast for Trinity Lake inflow to stay abreast of the water year projections thus far.

The graph (shown in screen shot above) can be a little daunting to read, but when armed with the appropriate information is discernable for any viewer.

Return now to an enlargement of the CNRFC forecast screenshot from Feb 12. Check out the light grey box “WY Vol Fcst 10/90%: 2,190/1,490 kaf” which reads longform as the following;

As of Feb. 12, the 10% of probability for Trinity Lake Inflow is predicted as 2,190,000 acre feet and the 90% of probability is 1,490,000 acre feet. Translated there is a 10% probability that the Trinity Allocation is predicted as “Wet” and a 90% probability is also “Wet”.

As managers track the predicted inflow via CNRFC, the Program’s Flow Workgroup develops hydrograph scenarios to use when the final determination is published by the California Department of Water Resources. The two agencies use different methods when it comes to these prediction tools, the California Department of Water Resources uses data that has a weighted average to compute statewide Snow Water Equivalent (SWE) and is known as a more conservative forecast method when comparing the two.

Wet-Season Baseflow Period (Feb. 15 – Apr. 14)

The next period within the Trinity River Restoration Program environmental flow management is the Wet-Season Baseflow Period, which initiates Feb. 15. The California Department of Water Resources February 90% B120 declaration was published on Feb. 11 as “normal” with the 90% determination at 1,295,000 acre feet.

The hydrograph developed by the Program with the “normal” water allocation does not exceed the current Trinity Reservoir dam releases which have ranged from 1500 cfs to 3500 cfs and are anticipated for the remainder of February because the reservoir is significantly encroached per the safety of dam criteria. For water accounting, the Program will deduct 60,000 acre feet from Reclamation flows during this period (Feb. 15 – Mar. 14), thus saving the reservoir valuable storage in the summer months.

Red dotted lines indicate 1500 cfs and 3500 cfs while the black line indicates the developed hydrograph for the “normal” February B-120 declaration.

With the river at levels above 300 cfs there are benefits to Trinity River salmonids as wetted areas are providing additional areas to biology within the system. Any reduction in flows would inhibit or halt such production in areas wetted by current flows.

Of course, unexpected flows always come as a shock. This water year has been unique in that maintenance on Clear Creek tunnel has initiated the need to send storage management releases down the Trinity versus to Whiskeytown Reservoir. To remain prepared, river enthusiasts should expect changing flows authorized by Reclamation through the month of March.

Prior to the next period (Apr. 15 – variable), the Program has a check-in on Mar. 15 to adjust flows to the March 90% B120 declaration. In April, the Program implements it’s spring snow-melt and recession hydrograph following the final B120 water year determination by the Department of Water Resources.

Return to the Feb. Newsletter

Grey Pine (Pinus sabiniana)

Posted on August 20, 2024April 29, 2025 by Kiana Abel

Common names: Grey pine (most common), ghost pine, foothill pine, Sabine pine, bull pine or grey leaf pine.

Adapted to the long, hot, dry summers of our Mediterranean climate, the grey pine is endemic to California and prolificates within the ring of foothills that surround California’s Central Valley. It fairs well in rocky well-drained soils yet also grows in heavy, poorly drained clay soils. The species commonly occurs with Blue Oak (Quercus douglasii) which creates a unique partnership that is described as “Oak/Foothill Pine vegetation” and is indicative of the grey pine which provides a sparse overstory above the canopy of an oak woodland. The partnership in itself is the preferred habitat to black-tailed deer, California quail, as well as mourning dove and describes a characteristic within the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, of which Trinity County is part [1].

Photo published on The Gymnosperm Database. A tree at the Rancho Santa Ana Botanical Garden, California [C.J. Earle, 2004.04.13].

The grey pine is easily identifiable with pale grey-green needles that are sparse and a bit droopy. When looking from afar a grey pine is easily spotted by his smoky, wistful coloration. The structure of P. sabiniana tends to be a bit scrappy with its center trunk splitting sometimes several times, often bending every which way, versus holding a typical stature. Also easily identifiable are the seed cones which are among the largest produced by any pine species, when fresh weighing on average between 1-1.5 pounds. One particular source noted that, “The large, heavy cones resemble footballs covered with wooden spikes. It is best to avoid the pine groves on windy days.” [2] The cones tend to be full of sticky sap and are also home to a plethora of nutritious seeds enjoyed by many animal species, such as Steller’s jay, the scrub jay, grey squirrels and humans. The seeds have an impressive percentage of calories in the form of protein, fat and carbohydrates and provide several essential minerals to those who forage it [3].

This species is the principal host for the dwarf mistletoe Arceuthobium occidentale a perennial parasitic herb that is native to California [2]. Dwarf mistletoe is considered a disease that the tree can succumb to typically causing reduced tree vigor or death. If you have grey pines near your structures and the parasite is left uncontrolled, infection can increase sixty-fold within a window of 10 years [3].

Photo of dwarf mistletoe originally posted in the CalPhotos Database. Zoya Akulova 2008.

John Muir, describes this tree in the first chapter of My First Summer in the Sierra: “June 4. … This day has been as hot and dusty as the first, leading over gently sloping brown hills, with mostly the same vegetation, excepting the strange-looking Sabine pine (Pinus sabiniana), which here forms small groves or is scattered among the blue oaks. The trunk divides at a height of fifteen or twenty feet into two or more stems, outleaning or nearly upright, with many straggling branches and long gray needles, casting but little shade. In general appearance this tree looks more like a palm than a pine. The cones are about six or seven inches long, about five in diameter, very heavy, and last long after they fall, so that the ground beneath the trees is covered with them. They make fine resiny, light-giving camp-fires, next to ears of Indian corn the most beautiful fuel I’ve ever seen.”[2]

Photo published on The Gymnosperm Database. Small stand in the southern Santa Lucia Range, California [C.J. Earle, 2007.03.01].

The ethnobotanical uses of the grey pine are impressive with uses ranging from cultural to functional to nutritional. Although there are documented uses for all parts of the tree from sap to needle, primarily the seed gets the most attention. Seeds are noted to be gathered fresh, as well as roasted, boiled or pounded for porridge [5]. The hull of the seed is also used as a bead to decorate traditional dresses used for ceremony. Follow this link to read the lengthy, impressive list of all documented uses.

Photo published on The Gymnosperm Database. Ripe cone *in situ*; Bodfish area, California [C.J. Earle, 2014.01.17].

References & Further Reading

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