Featured Article – Wolf Spiders

Posted on September 15, 2025September 15, 2025 by Kiana Abel

Wolf spiders are an incredibly common spider worldwide with 2400 described species that range in many different habitats, vary in size and coloration, have incredible eyesight and hunt by ambushing, chasing, pouncing and or tackling its prey. In fact, wolf spiders are classified to the Lycosidae family of arachnids, so named after the Greek word (from Ancient Greek λύκος (lúkos)) for wolf due characteristic hunting tactics of the two species.

Thin Legged Wolf Spider [Howard Bruner, inaturalist – Lewiston]

Carolina Wolf Spider *(Hogna carolinensis)*. [wikimedia commons]

McCook’s Split wolf spider (*Schizocosa mccooki).* [Joaquin Hale – Lewiston]

California is home to more than 120 species of wolf spiders, ranging from tiny ground dwellers in the genus Pardosa (thin legged wolf spider) to the quite large Hogna carolinensis (Carolina wolf spider). When discerning between genus’ of wolf spiders, they can be very difficult to identify in the field without holding each type in your hand [or by using this genius method]. Although the wolf spider’s bite is not dangerous to humans (akin to a bee sting) capturing one on camera or in your hand can be difficult because they are so fast – and they are a big, hairy spider. Commonly all wolf spiders share traits such as parental care, eight eyes, active hunting techniques and coloration that hides them within their habitat. Knowing these identifying factors, the wolf spider can be distinguished quite easily from other common California spiders such as the brown recluse look alike, Titiotus californicus, tarantulas or black widow.

Titiotus californicus [Marshal Hedin via iNatrualist]

Desert Tarantula(c) LJ Moore-McClelland via iNatrualist

Western Black Widow. [Joaquin Hale – Lewiston]

Within the Lycosidae family there are 56 described species of Schizocosa, a specific genius of wolf spider. Schizocosa mccooki is one species commonly known as the McCook’s Split Wolf Spider and can be found in Trinity County. This spider can be identified by its medium sized (about 1.5 inches) hairy body, active hunting style, eight eyes (two very large center eyes, four under and two upper eyes) and a distinctive “heart mark” on its abdomen. Most individuals live one year, with mating typically occurring in late summer or fall.

McCook’s Split Wolf Spider (*Schizocosa mccooki*). Original posted in inaturalist by (c) William Mason

The rearing and mating process for wolf spiders is unique in the spider world. Common to female wolf spiders, S. mccooki carries her egg sac attached to their spinnerets at the end of their abdomen until their spiderlings hatch. Once hatched, the juveniles remain on their mother’s back until they are ready to disperse into the world.

Wolf Spider Mothers Carry their Eggs – YouTube

Common to male Schizocosa is a complex leg-drumming display used to attract females during mating season. A 2022 study, published in Biology Letters, indicates that males use specific vibratory signals to court their desired female, creating unique and more complex patterns for larger females – the study hypothesizes this may be due to choosing a female that has a large carrying capacity for juvenile spiders once hatched (Choi etal, 2022). The study also found that females picked males with complex coordination of differing signals that may indicate her suiters athleticism (Choi etal, 2022).

Wolf spider, Schizocosa stridulans male courtship – YouTube

Spiders typically have eyes that suit their hunting styles, and unlike web-building spiders, wolf spiders rely on keen eyesight to capture prey. As mentioned earlier, wolf spiders have eight eyes, with the large median pair front and center. Their eyesight is enhanced by a reflective layer called the tapetum lucidum that helps to shine light back into the spiders vision effectively enhancing low-light conditions that aide them in nocturnal predation. Tapetum lucidum is an evolutionary feature found in both predators and prey such as cats, deer, cows, and some spider species. If you are ever interested in hunting wolf spiders, simply head out with a headlamp on a moonless night, shine your light into the grass and look for two reflective eyes shining back at you from the darks of your backyard.

Araneomorph spider of which wolf spiders are categorized. Anatomy from Spidentify

Wolf spiders possess forward-pointing chelicerae that operate in a pincer-like fashion. These robust mouthparts house paired fangs that deliver venom used to immobilize prey. In wolf spiders, the chelicerae are relatively large and well-muscled, giving them the strength to subdue struggling insects during active hunts. Viewed closely, the chelicerae appear dark and glossy, sometimes with fine hairs, and the fangs curve slightly inward at the tips. This arrangement is both efficient for piercing prey and distinguish them from other spider groups such as tarantulas, whose fangs move vertically rather than side-to-side.

In S. mccooki, the chelicerae are proportionally large relative to the spider’s body size and are typically dark brown to black with a polished sheen that contrasts against the lighter patterned cephalothorax. Strong internal muscles allow the fangs to strike with enough force to quickly immobilize prey such as beetles or crickets. Fine sensory hairs line the cheliceral margins, helping the spider detect movement and handle struggling prey. In males, the chelicerae can also serve a communicative role, sometimes being lifted or vibrated in coordination with leg-drumming during courtship.

A Riparian Predator & Prey

Riparian corridors are home to a wide range of species that link terrestrial and aquatic food webs. Among these, the wolf spider is a key ground-dwelling predator that helps regulate insect populations and provides prey for higher trophic levels.

Wolf spiders are widespread in open habitats such as grasslands, chaparral, and riparian habitats where cobble bars, woody debris, and leaf litter provide hunting grounds and cover. These microhabitats are important refuges not only for wolf spiders but for the many insects they consume. As wolf spiders actively stalk prey such as earwigs, beetles, ants, and crickets, consuming them helps moderate insect communities which indirectly supports plant health thus contributing to ecosystem stability. S. mccooki and other wolf spiders also contribute to cross-boundary energy flow by serving themselves as prey for birds, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals.

Mccooks Split Wolf Spider carrying its eggsac. [Martin Galli, inatrualist]

Recognizing the ecological functions of wolf spiders highlights why observation is often a better response than eradication. These spiders are integral components of riparian and terrestrial ecosystems, regulating insect populations and serving as prey for higher trophic levels. Their hunting strategies, reproductive behaviors, and physiological adaptations illustrate the complexity of predator–prey interactions that sustain biodiversity. By taking time to identify and observe a spider before removing or killing it, we not only learn more about local species but also foster an understanding of the interconnected roles that maintain ecosystem stability. In this way, simple curiosity can translate into conservation-minded awareness.

References

Plant Spotlight – Poison Oak and Skunk Brush

Posted on August 27, 2025August 27, 2025 by Kiana Abel

Toxicodendron diversilobum and Rhus trilobata

image comparison — On the left is poison oak, and the right is skunk brush. Notice the distinct ‘stem’ on the central leaflet on the poison oak plant. Skunk brush leaflets do not have this feature. *[Simone Groves, Hoopa Valley Fisheries Department]*

Editor’s note: The shrub with the common names which include skunk brush, basket bush, fragrant sumac, lemon sumac, and lemonade bush is known across North America as both Rhus trilobata and Rhus aromatica. The nomenclature in this document follows McBain and Trush (2005) and refers to the plant as Rhus trilobata.

Have you ever walked in the woods and tried to identify poison oak along the path? Some folks walk with extreme caution as soon as they step from pavement and defined trails, driven by fear of injurious rash caused by this plant. The most common way that I hear folks identify poison oak is through a common rhyme “leaves of three, let it be.” This is an easy phrase to remember, but there are some loopholes in this simple rhyme. There are several look-alike species that cause no harm, and are in fact quite tasty, and can be eaten. Let’s start with the commonly defined ID features used in the Jepson manual to distinguish the two genera.

Poison Oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum) has axillary flowers which appear between the leaf axles with a pedicel, or stem at the base which causes the flowers and fruit to be spaced apart; leaflets adaxially shiny or oily-looking on the top; fruit creamy white or papery looking.

Skunk brush (Rhus trilobata) (also called basket bush, lemon sumac, fragrant sumac, and lemonade bush) flowers appear on the ends of the branches, also called “terminal”; flowers are often nearly sessile or appear tightly packed; leaflets dull, not very shiny; fruit red and often sticky. There’s an interesting additional flower mannerism in skunk brush – the flowers often are only male or only female on individual plants, but sometimes bisexual flowers can also be found on plants, this term is called polygamodioecious. This is why a whole area will have no fruit, and then a patch of plants might be loaded full of fruit.

Speaking of its red fruit, skunk brush’s other common names, lemonade bush and lemon sumac, refer to the berries. They have a sour, lemony flavor to them. It is said that early pioneers steeped the berries in water, and then added sugar to make lemonade. The berries are also eaten directly and are considered an important food source by some Native American tribes. Many wild animals consume the berries of both poison oak and skunk brush, particularly birds and small mammals, although they are not a preferred food source. Their tendency to stick to the stems through the winter makes them good emergency food for animals when other foods are scarce.

Skunk Brush (*Rhus trilobata*) with fall berries. [Simone Groves, Hoopa Valley Fisheries Department]

Expanding beyond the features that the Jepson uses for ID there can be a lot more subtlety of distinguishing observations between the two species. The more that you look at these two, the more you will learn to differentiate between them in your own way! Here are a few more features that I have noticed over the years.

Leaves

Remember “leaves of three, let them be”? Well the more accurate saying should be, “leaflets of three, let them be” because according to plant anatomists, the three “leaves” on a poison oak plant are actually a single leaf, divided into three leaflets. Poison oak appears to have a stem on the terminal leaflet which separates it from the basal lobes. The leaves often have 3-dimensionality to them, either with ruffled edges, or a central crease along the midrib of the leaf, with venation standing out as slightly white when viewed from above. Any leaf features on poison oak can be highly variable and thus expect it to surprise you at times. As field botanists often joke that poison oak will often take on the look of nearby plants.

Skunk brush tends to have the front leaflet be a little larger and the back appear slightly reduced in size. These leaves do not have a stem attaching the leaflets together. The leaves tend to be extraordinarily flat or could be described as “2D.” Often times the venation is only distinctly visible from the abaxial or underside of the leaf. Sometimes there is a little trench-like crease from the topside but the veins don’t stand out looking down on it.

The last feature that is helpful for differentiating these two species, is the color and mannerisms of the stems of each plant, even when dormant. Poison oak tends to have yellowish stems, often times with hibernating buds that look like little pink primordial hands. Poison oak is also known for making little adventitious roots on the branches which helps it climb trees and spread aggressively over the ground. It isn’t unusual to see poison oak growing as either a shrub or a vine (but it’s not the same as ‘poison ivy’, which is not found in California.

The “yellowish” stems of poison oak. [Simone Groves, Hoopa Valley Fisheries Department]

Skunk brush has branches that look ashy grey or pinkish purple and in early spring they tend to be layered in a tender fuzz that is reminiscent of the velvet covering a young deer’s antlers. Also, the smell of skunk brush is distinctly pleasant, both when cut and when burned. One might imagine these sticks being used for incense, or something similar.

The tender fuzz covered stems of skunk brush. [Simone Groves, Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries]

Both species tend to come out of winter dormancy around the same time. However the first features to awaken in poison oak are its new shiny leaves, whereas the first feature to appear for skunk brush, are the flowers. Often times the timing of this awakening from dormancy is highly variable year to year and can track the warmth changing around the landscape in a very intimate way.

Comparison of the two species in early spring when poison oak shows leaves first and skunk brush’s flowers are first. [Simone Groves, Hoopa Valley Fisheries Department]

Initially, botanists placed both poison oak and skunk brush in the same genus- Rhus. This name is Greek for ‘rhous’ which means flow, or stream. Some have thought that this might refer to the sticky sap that is excreted when cut, but others have rejected this claim. The reclassification of poison oak to its own genus “Toxicodendron” occurred in the early 20th century as the genus was given definition and separated out those representatives within Rhus that caused skin irritation. Toxicodendron means “poison – tree” in Greek which was also a contentious definition because technically the plant is not poisonous, but is an irritant, and in fact has many medicinal and beneficial properties. In Hupa language the word for poison oak is k’e:k’ilye:ch’. In Yurok the word for poison oak is me’yk’welep’. The Karuk word for poison oak is kusvêep.

Urushiol is the chemical present in the Toxicodendron genus that is renowned for irritating the skin. This oil is described as similar to machine oil in its difficulty to remove. Some recommendations suggest removing it using a sudsy soap and an abrasive scrubbing surface under cold water. Also, some home remedies recommend rubbing clay or dirt on fresh oils as it can absorb the oils and reduce the interactions with your skin cells. According to the National Library of Medicine, the reaction caused by urushiol is a Type IV Hypersensitivity reaction which is often stimulated in 48-72 hours after exposure and is a T-cell mediated immune reaction, suggesting that it is the between-cell interactions that cause the body’s immune response to the oils.

As with many plants in the California landscape, both poison oak and skunk brush have a fire relationship. Although poison oak burning can aerosolize the urushiol, if the fire develops to just the right amount of heat and time of day, a completely safe fire can “stand up” and send the toxic smoke harmlessly into the upper atmosphere. Some indigenous descriptions report that the current prevalence of poison oak in forest understories is due to the lack of short fire return intervals on the landscape. Skunk brush was used by many tribes in California as a basketry stick. These stems were burned, just as hazel was for its shoots. In my personal experience burning with North Fork Mono led by cultural fire practitioner and Tribal Chairman, Ron Good, when the color of the ash turns purple, it can indicate that the fire and embers are the right intensity and is cool enough to cultivate the healthy regrowth of the plant. With burning and fire intensity, ash color and burned soil color as well as charcoal remains can all be an indicators of the temperature of the flames and their effects on the plant and soil communities. For more information dig into the resources at the FRAMES federally hosted fire effects resource page.

A common medicinal concept held by many of the tribes in our northern California region is that the medicine can be found near the cause of the problem. Poison oak is the classic example of this. Mugwort is a strong medicine for neutralizing poison oak, in particular salves made from it, but also a tea, taken internally can soothe the body’s reaction. Other common medicines include manzanita and madrone bark which a cooled tea of these can soothe the blisters and calm the body’s reaction. This idea can remind us that rather than thinking of the world as full of dangers and poisons that lie just beyond the edge of the path, rather that medicines and foods are always near to provide support and soothe the ails that arise along the way.

Resources:

Simone Groves, Riparian Ecologist, Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries

Simone is first generation California transplant of Scottish descent raised in the unceded territories of the Raymatush in the rural west peninsula of the SF Bay where farmers, farm workers and hippies form the heart of the small town. She graduated in 2016 from Humboldt State University with a BS in Botany and has worked in the outskirts of rural Humboldt county on Natural Resource and Land management since 2013. She is passionate about plants and their interactions with dynamic systems as a mechanism for relearning our human-landscape interdependence.

Featured Article – C. shasta

Posted on July 18, 2025July 21, 2025 by Kiana Abel

A tiny parasite in the Klamath & Trinity Rivers

*C. shasta a microscopic parasite. [captured as a screenshot from youtube, Shasta 2 Life Cycle Oregon State University]*

What is C. shasta?

Ceratonova shasta (C. shasta) is a microscopic parasite that is native to rivers of the Pacific Northwest, including the Klamath and Trinity Rivers. Infection is most severe for juvenile salmon but can impact returning adults as well. The impact of an infection is highly influenced by water conditions like temperature, flow, and seasonality. If conditions are right for the parasite’s host worm, C. shasta can rapidly proliferate and lead to severe infections that can be devastating to populations. In 2021, after years of drought that impacted river conditions juvenile salmonid deaths from C. shasta in the lower Klamath reached into the hundreds of thousands [1, 2].

To survive, C. shasta needs two hosts

1. A carpet of tiny worms
C. shasta starts its life inside a freshwater worm, called Manayunkia occidentalis. The worm, smaller than an eyelash, lives in mud and on rocks below the surface of a river or reservoir in colonies that can resemble an underwater carpet. Inside the worm, the parasite grows and turns into a new form called an actinospore. Once an actinospore, the worm releases the microscopic parasite to float in the water column and wait for its next host [3].

2. Salmon and Trout
As they swim young salmon breath in the actinospores allowing the parasite to attach to the gills and then enter the fish’s body. The parasite then travels to the fish’s intestines, where it multiplies and causes internal damage. This makes the fish sick and weak, causing many to succumb to the infection. The cycle continues when infected fish (including adults) release more spores back into the water after they die.

Jerri Bartholomew Ph.D. explains the complex lifecycle of C. shasta and her discovery of the second host involved in the disease. She presents some of the questions being explored in a collaborative effort to help salmon survive in the Klamath River.

Are Adult Salmon Affected?

Adult salmon can be infected with C. shasta however the severity is influenced by other stressors. Typically, adults encounter the microscopic spores during upriver migration through areas with high spore loads (like the lower Klamath River during spring/summer). If the fish is stressed from high water temperatures, poor conditions or other pathogens, C. shasta could lead to pre-spawn mortality or failure to spawn. Although typically resistant, if infected, adults can act as a carrier of the parasite – shedding spores when they die and decompose. If the spores are shed in a system that does not have adequate flushing flows during the ensuing winter months, juveniles from the area could be affected. While some disease impacts to adult salmon are possible, if conditions in the river are favorable, adults are generally more resistant to effects of the disease than juveniles.

The Klamath River

Salmon health and vitality is of utmost importance for Klamath indigenous groups like the Yurok, Quartz Valley, Karuk, and Hoopa Valley Tribes. For millennia salmon have provided sustenance and are celebrated as integral to the health of people, culture, tradition, and economy. The continued decline of salmon due to C. shasta and other human-enhanced factors are deeply felt by local people and led to the decade’s long advocacy to remove four hydroelectric dams on the Klamath River.

In 2023 and 2024 these dams on the Klamath River were removed, allowing salmon, steelhead and lamprey to reconnect to 400 miles of spawning habitat. It is the largest dam removal project in U.S. history, to date. Ecological goals for dam removal are to improve water quality, restore resources to Klamath River Tribes, restore habitat for salmonid species, and improve the health of salmon and steelhead [5].

The Klamath River is home to several salmon species that are important to Native American tribes, commercial and recreational fishers, and the ecosystem as a whole. Although infections occur in all species of juvenile salmon or trout, if the parasitic worm host is allowed to thrive, results can be devastating for some salmon species. One such species of concern are Coho salmon, which are recognized as “threatened” in the Klamath and the Trinity and are especially vulnerable to population scale impacts from large scale fish kills propagated by parasites.

Toxic algal blooms were a problem in the stagnant waters sitting behind the dams on the Klamath River since the dams were built. Photo by Stormy Staats/Klamath Salmon Media Collaborative via KRRC.

What made the lower Klamath River a hotspot for C. shasta? Below Iron Gate dam, the primary reasons were twofold. First, scouring events from winter storms were blocked by dams failing to disperse sediment. Second, waters held in several chains of reservoirs warmed. Ultimately these combining factors led to robust habitat conditions for the parasite’s aquatic worm host. Fish heath experts in the Klamath Basin are hopeful that dam removal will mitigate previously favorable growing conditions for the host worm [6]. Removal of JC Boyle, Copco 1 & 2 and Iron Gate dams will allow for a more natural flow of water from tributaries and potentially help to scour growth of the host worm with winter storms.

Hope for Trinity River Fish Populations

The Trinity River joins the Klamath River approximately 44 miles above the ocean, so its fish are subjected to the conditions of the lower Klamath River during their migrations. Beginning in late winter juvenile chinook begin to migrate downriver feeding on drift invertebrates, resting and digesting in warmer slower waters. Once they meet the mild saline waters of the Klamath estuary, they begin a smoltification process where their bodies change and adapt from freshwater to saltwater. Cold temperatures and salinity may reduce progress of disease, but do not eliminate infection [1].

Because of their migration paths, Trinity River fish populations were part of the juvenile fish kill on the Klamath River in 2021. This event, along with historic drought conditions that followed, allowed for pathogens like C. shasta to play a significant role in returning adult escapement. Since most Chinook exhibit a 3-5 year life cycle, we’re still experiencing the loss of these juvenile fish today. Historically low returns of adult chinook salmon have prompted recreational fishery managers to close in-river salmon fishing seasons for a third consecutive year [8, 9]. Although the immediate impacts have been devastating for recreational anglers and river enthusiasts, there are many hopes (and also many unknowns still to be learned) following the removal of the dams. The primary hope for Trinity River outmigrant fish to experience less frequent and less severe infections once they reach the Klamath River so that juveniles as well as adults can manage natural stressors and thrive.

Klamath Fish Health Assessment Team

The Klamath Fish Health Assessment Team (KFHAT) is a technical workgroup which formed during the summer of 2003 with the purpose of providing early warning and a coordinated response effort to avoid, or at least address, non-hazardous materials related fish kill events in the anadromous portion of the Klamath River basin [10].

To accomplish this goal, KFHAT created a network of experts and monitoring efforts through which information about current river and fish health conditions in the Klamath Basin can be shared among participants, the general public, and resource managers.

Every year, beginning in late April, members of KFHAT hold meetings to assess Klamath Basin fish health along the Klamath and Trinity Rivers and their main tributaries. The group publishes observations as well as a readiness level map based on those observations on a public facing website: Klamath Fish Health Assessment Team (KFHAT) after each meeting.

How are juvenile populations fairing this out-migration season? The wet winter of 2024/2025 has set the system up with favorable fish health conditions, but our area’s typical hot July weather can lead to stressful lower river environments. Thus far the 2025 monitoring season has seen some irregularities with regards to concentration of C. shasta. Klamath Basin water quality monitoring is implemented annually by a team at Oregon State University and recent monitoring results are showing higher than normal spore counts of C. shasta in geographic areas that are puzzling scientists [10]. In the lower river, screw traps are catching Trinity River hatchery-released yearlings from the fall and spring brood stocks with infections [10]. Although these conditions exist each year, they vary in severity and salmon evolved to this specific weather pattern. The species stay healthy by seeking cold water refugia located in deep stratified pools and cold-water tributary mouths during the hottest weeks of the year. Also typical to the area, wildfire can aid conditions when smoke sits in drainages, reflecting the sun’s heat back into the atmosphere and therefore cools air and water temperatures.

Updated after set meetings, the KFHAT map presents readiness levels for the Klamath Basin in a visual format. [Screenshot taken July 18, 2025 from the Klamath Fish Health Assessment Team website]

Although this year’s conditions thus far are concerning (note the yellow readiness levels in the map above), many juvenile salmon are in the last stages of migration to the ocean and are likely in the lower Klamath river undergoing smoltification or learning to live in their new ocean environment. What will conditions be when they return to spawn in our river in 2028, 2029, or 2030? Of course, only time can tell, but with the removal of four Klamath Dams, river managers are hopeful that, when it comes to controlled conditions, Trinity and Klamath run salmonids will have a more favorable environment than what populations have encountered for over six decades, and they might be more favorably armed to withstand what mother nature may bring their way.

Thank you to Dan Troxel, California Department of Fish and Wildlife lead on the Klamath Basin Fish Health Assessment Team and Morgan Knechtle from California Department of Fish and Wildlife for providing detailed edits to this article.

References

As massive fish kill continues on Klamath River, Karuk Tribe declares state of climate emergency
Serious fish kill consumes the Klamath River | Local News | heraldandnews.com
Ceratonova shasta – Wikipedia
Benefits of Klamath River Renewal – Klamath River Renewal
TRRP: Fish of the Trinity River
Dam removals, restoration project on Klamath River expected to help salmon, researchers conclude | Newsroom | Oregon State University
Chinook Salmon Fact Sheet – U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Another Commercial Salmon Season Closure is Expected | News Blog North Coast Journal. April 22, 2025.
CDFW News | Limited Chinook Sport Fishing to Reopen in 3 Central Valley Rivers, excludes Klamath Basin and Mainstem Sacramento.
KFHAT_2025_Report_5.pdf

Further Reading

Key Parasites of Salmonids in the Klamath and Trinity Rivers

Parasite	Type	Key Life Stage Affected	Impact Severity	Notes
Ceratonova shasta	Myxozoan	Juveniles	High	Major mortality factor in Klamath
Parvicapsula minibicornis	Myxozoan	Juveniles	Moderate	Common co-infection
Nanophyetus salmincola	Trematode	Juveniles & adults	Moderate	Common in Trinity River fish
Ichthyophthirius (“Ich”)	Protozoan	All stages	Variable	Outbreaks under warm conditions
Myxobolus spp.	Myxozoan	Juveniles	Low–moderate	Rare, possible underdiagnosis
Henneguya spp.	Myxozoan	Juveniles & adults	Low	Occasional gill infections
Gyrodactylus, Dactylogyrus	Monogenean	Juveniles	Low–moderate	Mostly hatchery-associated
Sea lice	Copepod	Smolts in estuary	Moderate	Not a primary river concern upstream

Key Parasites of Salmonids in the Klamath and Trinity Rivers

Return to the July Newsletter

Plant Spotlight – Mule’s ears and arrowleaf balsamroot

Posted on July 16, 2025July 22, 2025 by Kiana Abel

Sun Seekers, Fire Carriers, and Medicine Keepers

Narrowleaf Mule-Ears (*Wyethia angustifolia*). [Trystin Knowland via iNatrualist]

Arrowleaf Balsamroot (*Balsamorhiza sagittata*) McGee Creek, Ca [sierramichelle via iNaturalist]

Mule’s ears (of the genus Wyethia) and arrowleaf balsamroot (Bupthalmium sagittata) are two flowering plants that to the untrained eye are so similar they are often mistaken for the other. Both herbaceous plants not only look very similar but are a part of the same family, subfamily, tribe and subtribe of plants. Further, genetic testing has confirmed that these two plants are the closest relative to one another. However, distinguishing characteristics do exist. Read on to learn about each plant and their unique place in the northern California biota.

Narrowleaf Mule-Ears (Wyethia angustifolia)

Wyethia is a genus of North American flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, more commonly known as the aster, daisy or sunflower family. Wyethia are commonly referred to as mule’s ears. The genus Wyethia can typically be identified by their leaves that connect to the base of the plant (basal leaves) and 1-2 ft tall flowering stalk with a sun-flower-like head. Most people would probably see this flower and call it a “native sunflower” because of its large yellow radial flower (or inflorescence). Other common names besides “mule’s ears” are “California compassplant” and “black sunflower.” In Yurok language they are called skep’ol, in Hupa they are called sa’liwh. The etymology of the name “compassplant” likely comes from the flower’s ability to track the sunlight through the day. The leaves are fuzzy or velvety and have a lance-shaped blade (long and narrow) which can distinguish it from its closest look-alike.

Photo: Narrowleaf Mule-Ears (Wyethia angustifolia). [Steven Clinton via iNatrualist]

There are several species of Wyethia [1], of these the most commonly found in the Klamath Mountains is Narrow Leaf Mule Ears (Wyethia angustifolia) which grows in stream banks and springs at elevations from 0-5,500 feet. You’ll typically see it flower in the spring to summer depending on its elevation. Mule’s ears also have a characteristically sticky milky sap that can be toxic to the touch when pruned or broken.

Narrow-leaved Mule Ears. [Jean Pawek via CalPhotos]

Arrowleaf Balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata)

Balsamhoriza, otherwise called arrowleaf balsamroot, is also part of the Aasteracaea family. Arrowleaf balsamroot can be distinguished from mule’s ears when comparing the leaf shape, color and tiny hairs on the underside of the leaf. Arrowleaf balsamroot prefers colder and dryer climates and is found in mountain fields but can also be a common plant in the understory of conifer forests. It ranges from Colorado, west into the Sierra Nevada and north into Canada.

Photo: Arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata). [Simone Groves, Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries]

Compare the two leaf systems in the below images.

Narrowleaf Mule-Ears (*Wyethia angustifolia*) near Napa, Ca [Silverado Jim via iNaturalist]

Arrowleaf balsamroot (*Balsamorhiza sagittata*) leaf near Truckee, Ca. [cmaci via iNaturalist]

Similar to a turnip or a carrot, the roots of both mule’s ears and arrowleaf balsamroot have a long branching tap root in which the dormant plant resides during winter. The roots can penetrate over 6ft deep in the soil and spread 3-4 feet out away from the plant. Every year the vegetation dies back completely and will rise again from the earth in spring.

Narrowleaf Mule-Ears tap root (*Wyethia angustifolia*) near Mill Valley, Ca [Nen Sims via iNaturalist]

Mule’s ears occupy a range of vegetation types, including many arid and alpine communities whose habitat contains a mixture of dry-climate tree species and native grassland. These plants can handle harsh soil conditions, with very little topsoil and can be an indicator of disturbance activities, as their seeds germinate well in exposed soil. However, if an area is intensively grazed, these plants can be impacted. The young tender leaves of the plant in spring are sought after by ungulates and their populations can be eliminated by persistent grazing. Part of this is because they have dormant buds near the surface of the soil at ground level. If the shoot tips are eaten or damaged, the plant may be impacted.

However, if populations establish, underground roots can be quite large and split multiple times which can allow new plants to form. This can form a circular patch radiating outwards from a central spot. The above ground portion of the plant dies back each summer and fall and the remaining dry material covering the ground can help carry the fire through patches of rock helping to gently move fire through an area. When the material burns, it adds a layer of ash to the soil, slowly accumulating topsoil and allowing new places for grassland to establish.

Shrubs that associate with a mule’s ears or arrowleaf balsamroot typically form fire risk patterns that are classified as a low-growing fuel class with a moderate to occasional high severity fire. Fires in these communities are often a “Fire Mosaic” where conditions result in a patchwork of burn severity between low and high severity depending on the fuel loading, and fire weather conditions under which it burns. The concept of a fire mosaic can be applied to much of California’s natural landscapes. Plant species throughout California, and the world, create specific fuel conditions through their physical bodies and life cycle strategies that often set conditions for the plants to return. In the dynamic interplay between life and death, growth and fire, persistent multi-generational patterns throughout history create these plant-and-fire relationships.

Mule’s ear and arrowleaf balsamroot are both very strong medicinal plants and are also used as a food source. Mule’s ear leaves have been used by the Miwok tribe to make a tea that helps to reduce fever and stimulate perspiration. The roots have been used to make a poultice which can reduce swelling, soothe burns, and according to Shishoni tribe – can be an “unfailing cure for syphilis” and wash made with the roots can be used to treat Measles. Today, places where these plants grow are considered medicine places and should be treated with respect. Various tribes document using the roots of the plants as one might eat Jerusalem artichokes, baked in an underground oven with warm rocks for several days.

The large seeds produced by both plants are a favorite for birds and humans and are akin to sunflower seeds. There are several species of insects that use the developing seeds as a host plant and many different native bees such as megachile (leaf-cutter bee) species have a relationship with open pollinated flowers which can be very productive nectar producers. Open pollinated flowers tend to be the most frequently visited flower shapes because they provide a large landing pad and lots of space for pollinators to move around on them.

Photo: Arrowleaf balsamroot seed head and seeds. Photo USDI BLM OR030 SOS.

Mule’s ears and arrowleaf balsamroot are more than just striking wildflowers of the northern California landscape—they are living testaments to the deep interconnection between plant life, fire, wildlife, and human cultures. As food, medicine, and ecological agents, these plants reveal the intricate relationships that have long existed between people and place. Understanding their roles in ecosystem function and traditional knowledge invites us to view the land not as a backdrop, but as a living partner in our shared future.

Resources

Wyethia – Wikipedia
CalScape – Wyethia
Wyethia angustifolia
Native American Ethnobotany Database – Wyethia
Native American Medicinal Plants: An Ethnobotanical Dictionary by Daniel E. Moreman
Natural History Museum Data Portal: Wyethia
FEIS USFS Database: Wyethia
Reduction of Survival and Growth of Young Pinus jeffreyi by an Herbaceous Perennial, Wyethia mollis
Impacts of Predispersal Seed Predation on Seed Production of Wyethia amplexicaulis, Agoseris glauca, and Crepis acuminata
Wyethia on iNat
Balsamorhiza on iNat
Etymology online: Girasole
Plant guide for arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata)

Simone Groves, Riparian Ecologist, Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries

Simone is first generation California transplant of scottish descent raised in the unceded territories of the Raymatush in the rural west peninsula of the SF Bay where farmers, farm workers and hippies form the heart of the small town. She graduated in 2016 from Humboldt State University with a BS in Botany and has worked in the outskirts of rural Humboldt county on Natural Resource and Land management since 2013. She is passionate about plants and their interactions with dynamic systems as a mechanism for relearning our human-landscape interdependence.

Return to the July Newsletter

Plant Spotlight – Cattail

Posted on May 12, 2025June 23, 2025 by Kiana Abel

Cattail versus Tule

Typha latifolia & Schoenoplectus acutus

Cattails may be one of the most familiar sedges with its endearing name and inflorescence (or flower), which looks like a corn dog perennially sticking out of the tall green walls of a marsh. However, the cattail’s cousin, tule (also referred to as bull-rush) occupies similar habitat yet is not able to persist in the languishing habitat conditions that emergent wetlands undergo today.

The world’s center of diversity for cattail is in Eurasia with 6 species found on every subcontinent. North America also has several different species (9 in North America) including 2 species native to California. Additionally, there are several species from the Eurasian subcontinent that can be found in North America, including locally, which have been shown to exhibit invasive behavior.

The most common species of cattail is Typha latifolia and the most common species of tule or bull-rush is Schoenoplectus acutus. Schoenoplectus or tule are represented by 25 species, 15 of which are on the North American subcontinent, and 9 of which are native to Californian wetlands. Schoenoplectus californicus  and  S. acutus are the large stature tule common in Trinity County.

Cattail and tule are both around the same ‘stature’ or blade height which represents the overall plant height, however there are several ways to tell the two apart.

*Typha* species botanical illustration in Flora of North America by John Myers.

Cattail has a wide flat blade that is arranged in a ‘fan’ like an iris. Looking at the leaves alone one might think that this species is an Iris. Tule has a round hollow leaf, not flat at all, which is unusual for a sedge! The typical saying for sedges is: “sedges have edges” and “rushes are round” but tule breaks this rule.

CalFlora Typha latifolia. Ron Vanderhoff CC-BY-NC 4.0

Also, the flowers of the plants look very different. With cattail, it’s common name is descriptive of the flower. In many sedge species, there is a male flower at the top of the inflorescence, and female at the bottom. The fluffy stuff that you’re used to seeing on a cattail is actually the seeds! Each has a separate wind-blown umbrella to help it land far away from the mother plant. Sometimes it can take a full rotation from fall to spring before the seeds will release from the corn-dog flower head, which can coincide with the nesting period for many birds. Cattail  seeds are not very nutrient dense, but you might find birds harvesting beaks full of fluff to line their nests. 

In tule, the seeds are born in a little toss of beads on the end of a string which emerges from the top of the tall, round leaf stalks. Tule seeds (in contrast to cattail seeds) are desirable as bird food, and songbirds in the marsh can often be found hanging crookedly off a tule leaf and eating the ornament of seeds from the top of the plant.

*Typha_latifolia* with *Equisetum*. [E. Makings, ASU Vascular Plant Herbarium]

These plants both require slow-water habitat. Cattail can handle wider extremes of environmental conditions, such as more scour, a higher tolerance of both inundation and dryness, and a greater ability to establish from windblown seeds.

Tule on the other hand, requires backwater areas with very little scour, specific amounts of perennial inundation and cannot usually tolerate completely dry conditions (6). Oxygen is often the limiting factor for primary productivity in hydric wetland soils. This suggests that when tule experiences good growing conditions, it can facilitate survival of other oxygen-dependent species (which is typically considered more desirable for diversity in aquatic environments). Tule and cattail are often competitive bedmates and cattail will usually win the inexorable struggle when the two spar for habitat.

The Latin derivative for cattail, Typha, may come from the Greek word typhein, to smoke or to emit smoke; or typhe meaning “cat’s tail” but the true reason for using this Greek root is not known today. Some resources today often find these descriptions to be confusing because it is hard to understand why this plant might be described as ‘smoke’ unless one has a relationship between fire and wetland communities, and so, many people call it cattail because either interpretation could be an explanation for its name. This plant language offers us an opportunity to be curious and listen to others to unravel the answer.

A close up of cattail seeds. [Steve Matson]

Historically California tribes have an intimate relationship to wetland habitats. Many tribes will refer to the wetland as the “medicine cabinet” or “drugstore” as many species foundational to healthy living within ecosystems can be found in these habitats. Additionally, in California, burning would be carried out in wetland communities to help maintain the health of the tule and maintain the balance of this critical habitat for both ecosystem function and human health (9, 11, 12, 13).

European history documents cattail flower heads utilized as slow burning torches that were very smoky and may have helped to repel insects. Also, many historical references to “reed” are referring to cattail, including biblical references (21).

In local languages, the Hupa people describe tule as tł’ohtse’ (17). Karuk people describe tule as taprarahtunvêech for living plants or taprárah for the plant in use as a mat or sewn object (18). Yurok people describe tule and cattail synonymously as ‘wehlkoh meaning “leaves woven together to make a mat or raincoat” (24).

In plain English, cattail  can also be called “bull rush” which leads us back to the reason why these two species are paired together in this article! How can we tell which “bull rush” is the true bull rush?! One of the great struggles with plants is the ability to communicate effectively about which individual is being described from person-to-person. This is a challenge that has been handed down through many generations and has led us to the current era of the California Jepson Manual and using dichotomous keys and Latin to separate different plant descriptions from one another. For this reason, the term “bull rush” or “rush” can be an ambiguous description, but for this article it is important to create distinction.

The fossil record of cattail can be traced back to the Paleogene part of the Cenozoic, which is when non-avian dinosaurs went extinct. This era is marked in the geologic record by the iridium anomaly along with the deposition of several other transition metals which can be toxic for animal consumption. This was at the same time as mammalian and vertebrate diversity expanded dramatically and the circumpolar current began to form. Both cattail and tule can bio-accumulate toxic minerals and provide filtration for slow water habitats. One can imagine how this may have supported survival of new life in a stressful environment (23).

Both humans and animals have a long history of using cattail and tule. All parts of both of these plants are edible at various life-history stages (10, 14, 15). The roots of both plants are thick and starchy and have been harvested, cultivated and tended by ancient humans before agricultural practices began. The mashed-up starch can also be used to staunch bleeding and disinfect wounds.

Cattail  shoots are usually harvested when young. They look and feel like a leek and have a similar texture when cooked, with a milder flavor. The pollen is high in protein and can be used like flour to thicken soups or make pancakes. Stems of cattail can be made into a tea to treat whooping cough (16). The fluffy seeds of cattail have been used as diapers, sanitary napkins and for dressing wounds by humankind worldwide with it’s soft absorptive features.

Tule’s young shoots can be eaten like asparagus but mature leaves can act as an emetic, causing vomiting. Tule’s most famous use is for fiber. Many tribes throughout California in particular have used tule leaves for houses, weaving sleeping mats and roofing for houses as well as tule boats (22).

Tule and cattails provide very important habitat for birds in particular. Beyond a source of sustenance, wetland birds also use these habitats for the edge effect that they create for protection. The aerial friction that these plants provide, creates a buffer from extreme weather conditions within the boundary layer of a wetland, which is typically a pretty exposed environment. Both of these species can be used in botanical wetland delineation to establish protected habitats (23).

Both cattail (Typha latifolia) and tule (Schoenoplectus acutus) play vital roles in the ecology of wetland environments, serving not only as crucial habitats for various wildlife but also as important resources for human communities throughout history. Their unique characteristics, from the distinct morphology of their leaves to their varied reproductive strategies, highlight the biodiversity present within these ecosystems. Furthermore, understanding their ecological functions and cultural significance can foster greater appreciation and stewardship of wetlands – a critically important yet declining habitat area within our watersheds.

Resources

Berkeley Jepson manual: Typha

iNaturalist: Typha

Typha under stress

Fire Effects Information System (FEIS)

CNPS Manual of California vegetation: Schoenoplectus acutus

Schoenoplectus californicus at Different Life-History Stages to Hydrologic Regime

Soil redox dynamics under dynamic hydrologic regimes – A review

Flora of North America: Typha

Miwok Cultural Fire Perspective: Don Hankins of Chico State

Revised phylogeny and historical biogeography of the cosmopolitan aquatic plant genus Typha (Typhaceae)

Fire and Water in Yosemite

Evaluation of Restoration Techniques and management practices of tule pertaining to eco-cultural use by Irene A Vasquez

FIRE in California’s Ecosystems, Chapter 19: M. Kat Anderson

Origin, Classification and Distribution of Typha Species a Paradigm forUnderstanding the Biology and Ecology of the Wetland Emergent PlantSpecies

International Journal of Pharmaceutical research and Applications: Typha Species overview

Native American Medicinal Plants: An Ethnobotanical Dictionary by Daniel E. Moreman

Hupa: Typha

Karuk: Tule

Flora of North America: Typha Latifolia Illustration by John Myers

Flora of North America: Shoenoplectus tabernaemontani by John Myers

Ethnobotany of foraged food and peculiar produce: Cattail culinary uses

NRCS: Schoenoplectus acutus

GEI Consultants: Navigating the Murky Waters: A Guide to Wetland Delineations

Yurok Language Project UC Berkeley

Simone Groves, Riparian Ecologist, Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries

Return to the May Newsletter

Water Year 2025 (Oct. 15 – Apr. 15)

Posted on February 12, 2025February 14, 2025 by Kiana Abel

Water Year 25 thus far has been a good year for Trinity Reservoir. In October, Trinity Reservoir measured in at 70% full with 1.7 million acre feet. Seasonal storms have recently pushed storage over 2 million acre feet (or 84%). In December, flows were held steady at 1500 cfs through January and increased to 3500 cfs after several atmospheric river systems passed through in early February.

Trinity Reservoir December 2024 [Kiana Abel, Trinity River Restoration Program]

Feb. Forecast – California-Nevada River Forecast Center

The volume of environmental flow releases for the Trinity River Restoration Program’s Wet-Season Baseflow Period (Feb. 15-Apr. 14) are determined by a conservative monthly inflow projection for Trinity Reservoir from the California Department of Water Resources (90% B120) in February, March with the final determination in April.

Prior to the official determination, which is published around the 10th of the month, water managers follow the California-Nevada River Forecast Center Median forecast for Trinity Lake inflow to stay abreast of the water year projections thus far.

The graph (shown in screen shot above) can be a little daunting to read, but when armed with the appropriate information is discernable for any viewer.

The Program’s Water-Year Volume Allocation as specified by the Record of Decision is outlined in the table below. The far left column is the threshold amount of state forecasted inflow in the Trinity Reservoir listed in acre feet which determines the center column, water year type. Then in the right column is listed the allocation to restoration for that water year, which includes baseflows.

Return now to an enlargement of the CNRFC forecast screenshot from Feb 12. Check out the light grey box “WY Vol Fcst 10/90%: 2,190/1,490 kaf” which reads longform as the following;

As of Feb. 12, the 10% of probability for Trinity Lake Inflow is predicted as 2,190,000 acre feet and the 90% of probability is 1,490,000 acre feet. Translated there is a 10% probability that the Trinity Allocation is predicted as “Wet” and a 90% probability is also “Wet”.

As managers track the predicted inflow via CNRFC, the Program’s Flow Workgroup develops hydrograph scenarios to use when the final determination is published by the California Department of Water Resources. The two agencies use different methods when it comes to these prediction tools, the California Department of Water Resources uses data that has a weighted average to compute statewide Snow Water Equivalent (SWE) and is known as a more conservative forecast method when comparing the two.

Wet-Season Baseflow Period (Feb. 15 – Apr. 14)

The next period within the Trinity River Restoration Program environmental flow management is the Wet-Season Baseflow Period, which initiates Feb. 15. The California Department of Water Resources February 90% B120 declaration was published on Feb. 11 as “normal” with the 90% determination at 1,295,000 acre feet.

The hydrograph developed by the Program with the “normal” water allocation does not exceed the current Trinity Reservoir dam releases which have ranged from 1500 cfs to 3500 cfs and are anticipated for the remainder of February because the reservoir is significantly encroached per the safety of dam criteria. For water accounting, the Program will deduct 60,000 acre feet from Reclamation flows during this period (Feb. 15 – Mar. 14), thus saving the reservoir valuable storage in the summer months.

Red dotted lines indicate 1500 cfs and 3500 cfs while the black line indicates the developed hydrograph for the “normal” February B-120 declaration.

With the river at levels above 300 cfs there are benefits to Trinity River salmonids as wetted areas are providing additional areas to biology within the system. Any reduction in flows would inhibit or halt such production in areas wetted by current flows.

Of course, unexpected flows always come as a shock. This water year has been unique in that maintenance on Clear Creek tunnel has initiated the need to send storage management releases down the Trinity versus to Whiskeytown Reservoir. To remain prepared, river enthusiasts should expect changing flows authorized by Reclamation through the month of March.

Prior to the next period (Apr. 15 – variable), the Program has a check-in on Mar. 15 to adjust flows to the March 90% B120 declaration. In April, the Program implements it’s spring snow-melt and recession hydrograph following the final B120 water year determination by the Department of Water Resources.

Return to the Feb. Newsletter

Grey Pine (Pinus sabiniana)

Posted on August 20, 2024April 29, 2025 by Kiana Abel

Common names: Grey pine (most common), ghost pine, foothill pine, Sabine pine, bull pine or grey leaf pine.

Adapted to the long, hot, dry summers of our Mediterranean climate, the grey pine is endemic to California and prolificates within the ring of foothills that surround California’s Central Valley. It fairs well in rocky well-drained soils yet also grows in heavy, poorly drained clay soils. The species commonly occurs with Blue Oak (Quercus douglasii) which creates a unique partnership that is described as “Oak/Foothill Pine vegetation” and is indicative of the grey pine which provides a sparse overstory above the canopy of an oak woodland. The partnership in itself is the preferred habitat to black-tailed deer, California quail, as well as mourning dove and describes a characteristic within the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, of which Trinity County is part [1].

Photo published on The Gymnosperm Database. A tree at the Rancho Santa Ana Botanical Garden, California [C.J. Earle, 2004.04.13].

The grey pine is easily identifiable with pale grey-green needles that are sparse and a bit droopy. When looking from afar a grey pine is easily spotted by his smoky, wistful coloration. The structure of P. sabiniana tends to be a bit scrappy with its center trunk splitting sometimes several times, often bending every which way, versus holding a typical stature. Also easily identifiable are the seed cones which are among the largest produced by any pine species, when fresh weighing on average between 1-1.5 pounds. One particular source noted that, “The large, heavy cones resemble footballs covered with wooden spikes. It is best to avoid the pine groves on windy days.” [2] The cones tend to be full of sticky sap and are also home to a plethora of nutritious seeds enjoyed by many animal species, such as Steller’s jay, the scrub jay, grey squirrels and humans. The seeds have an impressive percentage of calories in the form of protein, fat and carbohydrates and provide several essential minerals to those who forage it [3].

This species is the principal host for the dwarf mistletoe Arceuthobium occidentale a perennial parasitic herb that is native to California [2]. Dwarf mistletoe is considered a disease that the tree can succumb to typically causing reduced tree vigor or death. If you have grey pines near your structures and the parasite is left uncontrolled, infection can increase sixty-fold within a window of 10 years [3].

Photo of dwarf mistletoe originally posted in the CalPhotos Database. Zoya Akulova 2008.

John Muir, describes this tree in the first chapter of My First Summer in the Sierra: “June 4. … This day has been as hot and dusty as the first, leading over gently sloping brown hills, with mostly the same vegetation, excepting the strange-looking Sabine pine (Pinus sabiniana), which here forms small groves or is scattered among the blue oaks. The trunk divides at a height of fifteen or twenty feet into two or more stems, outleaning or nearly upright, with many straggling branches and long gray needles, casting but little shade. In general appearance this tree looks more like a palm than a pine. The cones are about six or seven inches long, about five in diameter, very heavy, and last long after they fall, so that the ground beneath the trees is covered with them. They make fine resiny, light-giving camp-fires, next to ears of Indian corn the most beautiful fuel I’ve ever seen.”[2]

Photo published on The Gymnosperm Database. Small stand in the southern Santa Lucia Range, California [C.J. Earle, 2007.03.01].

The ethnobotanical uses of the grey pine are impressive with uses ranging from cultural to functional to nutritional. Although there are documented uses for all parts of the tree from sap to needle, primarily the seed gets the most attention. Seeds are noted to be gathered fresh, as well as roasted, boiled or pounded for porridge [5]. The hull of the seed is also used as a bead to decorate traditional dresses used for ceremony. Follow this link to read the lengthy, impressive list of all documented uses.

Photo published on The Gymnosperm Database. Ripe cone *in situ*; Bodfish area, California [C.J. Earle, 2014.01.17].

References & Further Reading

Return to the August Newsletter